Very different situation in Hungary: Mass protests in Hungary, more than in Poland

Link to the workers – more threatening to the Soviet bloc

The head of the Communist party in Hungary, Imre Nagy rejects buildup of heavy industry post 1953,

Focus instead on production of consumer goodsm, in 1955 he was forced to leave government due to his too liberal reforms – (replaced by the Stalinist Rakosi) post-1956 aim to get Nagy back. Student protests made their way on to the streets in October 1956– demanding social and economic reforms

Demand Soviet troop withdrawal, multi-party system, free elections, Trials for crimes of Communist leaders, Rakosi and others

Massive protest 23 October 1956 – Students and worker support – 200,000 people on the streets of Budapest demanding the end of Communist rule in Hungary More wideranging than in Poland East Germany

The Hungarian government called for Soviet troops to come to Budapest – and by October 24 they had come

Nagy on the radio calls for people to go home and says he will reintroduce the reforms of 1953-5 This doesn’t help, continued mass protests. Pockets of resistance around the capital October 24 MArtial Law announced

Hungarian Security police fire on protestors from the capital building, then Soviets fire on protestors, fights start across the city. Compromise sought but many deaths due to Soviets shooting at , revolutionary committees rise across the city. 28 october government on a multiparty basis announced and the Soviets withdrew from Budapest Nationalist foreign policy, socialist economic policy announced, Nagy becomes prime minister

However there was still strong support of repressing the Hungarian revolution, many believed the revolt had gone to far, embarassed the Soviet Union in the eyes of the West, but at the same time they were afraid of looking too repressive, as they would lose a propaganda war. Show that need to repress people in the East (West didn’t need to).

One thing that assisted a hardline policy by the Soviets in Hungary were events which occurred in the world at that time

On the 29 October the Israelis invade Egypt and then the British moved to bomb Egypt on 31 October 1956 – the so-called Suez crisis – British were afraid of Egypt falling to communism – raised the spectre of neo-colonialism (independence in many former colonies from 1945 onwards – India – 1947 etc).

On 31 October 1956 the US stated that they would not interfere in the affairs of other countries – non-intervention

Soviets fear that they would lose interests in Middle East and Europe – thought the Egyptians couldn’t hold out

Also realise they have a chance to reimpose order in Hungary, important shere of influence

Soviet troops return to Budapest, 31 October 1956, order reimposed, 25,000 deaths, 200,000 flee to the West, Nagy replaced and executed

West see that supporting East European resistance forces could lead to a blood bath [- strengthened idea of coexistence

Let us now look at another crucial crisis in 1953-63 – this time regarding Berlin – remember that Berlin had been an important clash point in 1948-9 with the airlift and also in 1953 with the revolt of workers

As it stood between East and West – was a symbol of divided Germany but nothing had really been sorted out here – West and East Germany divided but Berlin still relatively open

What were the different positions of the two superpowers?

-Eisenhower and the States were worried about the position of West Berlin to such an extent that he was prepared to risk general war over the city – partyl as a result of the symbolic importance of the city. E realised a strong policy needed regarding Berlin as otherwise there was no way it could be defended – Soviets could easily take over West Berlin.

• E used it as a centre for offensive cold war measures – dynamic program of penetration in the city, disinformation and radio broadcasts to encourage revolt, food parcels were sent to the East – on the cold war’s front line

• As we have seen they even had a tunnel for eavesdropping in the city – clash of East and West

• For the Soviets Berlin was an even bigger problem –Kruschev worried about western subversion in the area – even if it was more supporting passive resistance rather than outright rebellion

• Soviets also worried about mass exodus of East Germans to the West through Berlin – indeed there had been a mass escape of East Germans in 1958 – they could see the economic recovery in West Berlin with their own eyes

• As mentioned before the Soviets were also worried about the rearmament of West Germany and worried about German possession of nuclear weapons

• US by the end of the 1950s was also worried about maintaining access to Berlin through East Germany – Walter Ulbricht the first secretary of East Germany had said in 1955 he was prepared to restrict access to West Berlin

• Also as said before knew they could not protect the town if there was a hot war.

• Soviet aims – sought to change the situation of Berlin within Germany to reduce tension – Kruschev policies

• Sought to stop more hardliners in the Soviet Union using the Berlin situation to increase their power – also worried about the new military situation in West Germany affecting the situation in Berlin

• Soviet attempts – Kruschev firstly transfers ….and he also makes ambitious demands to the West – ultimatum, ignored by the West. Situation still needed to be resolved – what was to happen with Berlin?

Kruschev’s ultimatum regarding Berlin being made a free city in 1959 – but still there was a need to sort out the situation in the city. In late 1959 Kruschev travelled to the United States to meet with Eisenhower, but at this time E was on his way out – presidential election 1960.

K thus waited until the election of President John F Kennedy in 1961 before he began to put pressure on the US administration again. It wasn’t clear what kind of a president JFK would be in matters of foreign policy – Kruschev believed he could bully the inexperienced JFK – we will see this over the period 1961-3.

Walter Ulbricht – Head of state of the GDR from 1960 onwards – was deeply worried about the continued exodus of East Germans through Berlin, something needed to be done. Especially galling as 200,000 East Germans escaped to West Berlin in 1960 alone, this meant the loss of skilled workers, engineers which the GDR desperately needed – Ulbricht sought to keep them

How could this be done? His ideas were to make Berlin a free city – not part of the West or the East – proper borders could thus be set up around the city,

An attempt to formalise the division of Germany in a four power treaty – would provide some form of stability and allow GDR to feel like a true sovereign state, give more power over the area

Also Ulbricht wanted East Germany to have control of access routes to West Berlin - to prevent people escaping to the West.

Kruschev realised the issues involved here and he tried to put pressure on Kennedy to improve the situation

Said the situation had to be resolved in a year – tries to bully Kennedy to accepting his demands – a separate peace with East Germany – again allowing the Soviets to control the situation more

June 1961 meeting Vienna – Kruschev/JFK – K intimidates JFK, says war will occur if they don’t compromise over West Berlin, JFK stands his ground, JFK says that West Berlin is Western Europe. June 10 ultimatum if US will not agree to Soviet demands.

US position in all of this – attempt to maintain the status quo – they wanted continued division of Berlin, good for spying, propaganda importance – people keep flooding across the border

But worries of war – Macmillan afraid of war – De gaulle believes K bluffing