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When governments make laws for their citizens, they use a system of courts backed by the power of the police to enforce these laws. Of course, there may be instances where the law is not enforced against someone—such as when young children commit crimes, when the police have to concentrate on certain crimes and therefore ignore others, or in countries where there is so much political corruption that certain people are able to escape justice by using their money or influence. But the general nature of the law is enforced equally against all members of the nation.

Government-made laws are nevertheless often patterned upon informal rules of conduct already existing in society, and relations between people are regulated by a combination of all these rules. This relationship can be demonstrated using the example of a sports club.

Suppose a member of a rugby club is so angry with the referee during a club game that he hits him and breaks his nose. At the most informal level of social custom, it is probable that people seeing or hearing about the incident would criticize the player and try to persuade him to apologize and perhaps compensate the referee in some way. At a more formal level, the player would find he had broken the rules of his club, and perhaps of a wider institution governing the conduct of all people playing rugby, and would face punishment, such as a fine or a suspension before he would be allowed to play another game. Finally, the player might also face prosecution for attacking the referee under laws created by the government of his country. In many countries there might be two kinds of prosecution. First, the referee could conduct a civil action against the player, demanding compensation for his injury and getting his claim enforced by a court of law if the player failed to agree privately. Second, the police might also start an action against the player for a crime of violence. If found guilty, the player might be sent to prison, or he might be made to pay a fine to the court—that is, punishment for an offence against the state, since governments often consider antisocial behaviour not simply as a matter between two individuals but as a danger to the well-being and order of society as a whole.

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1.Government-made laws are often patterned upon informal rules of conduct already existing in society

2.The player might face prosecution for attacking the referee under law.

3.When governments make laws for their citizens, they use a system of courts.

4.Governments consider anti-social behaviour as a danger to the well-being and order of society.

5.This relationship can be demonstrated using the example of a sports club.

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•I could have married her if I wanted to. (I didn’t marry her.)

•That was dangerous – he could have killed somebody. (He didn’t kill anybody.)

•You should have written – I was getting worried. (The person did not write.)

•She needn’t have invited them. (She invited them.)

•You were stupid to try climbing up there. You might have killed yourself. (The person didn’t kill himself.)

•If she hadn’t been so bad-tempered, I might have married her. (I didn’t marry her.)

•I ought to have phoned him this morning, but I forgot.

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Flynn was a chronic alcoholic. He often heard voices and believed that they belonged to a spirit from the planet Jupiter. The voice told him that he had a mission to prepare the world for a visitation from Jupiter.

One day, Flynn was stopping people in the street to tell them about the coming visitation. He stopped Mark, who said he was interested in Flynn’s story. However, after a few minutes Mark expressed disbelief, and Flynn flied into a fury. He picked up a piece of paving-stone lying by the side of the road, and hit Mark on the head with it. Mark died as a result of the injury.

When he was questioned, Flynn admitted that he hit Mark with a stone; he said that his spirit guide from Jupiter told him to kill Mark as a lesson to all those who did not believe his mission.

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142

UNIT 4. LEGALESE

1.:

1.What is legalese?

2.What are the main characteristic features of legalese?

3.What are three reasons for the slow pace of modernizing legal language?

TEXT

LEGALESE

Although lawyers come from a variety of backgrounds and do a variety of work, as a profession they often appear rather remote and difficult to understand. Perhaps one reason for this is legalese—the strange and incomprehensible language so many lawyers seem to write and speak. This is not just a feature of English-speaking lawyers. People all over the world complain that they cannot understand court proceedings or legal documents.

Of course all professions have their own jargon. Economists commonly talk about junk bonds (the right to collect a debt which will in fact probably never be repaid); doctors about lacerations (cuts) and contusions (bruises); and English teachers about metalanguage (the words we use to talk about language). The use of some special words can be justified because they refer to matters which are important to a particular profession but not important to most people in everyday life. But sometimes it seems that jargon is a way of creating a mystery about a profession, of distinguishing people on the inside (economist, doctors, teachers) from those on the outside.

In recent times lawyers have made efforts to make their profession less mysterious. After all, their job is supposed to be to clarify matters for the public, not to make them more complicated!

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This is particularly so in the United States where lawyers openly advertise their services to the public and where special clothes and wigs, still a feature of the English system, have mostly disappeared. But it seems likely that legalese will survive for a long time to come. One reason for this is that old documents and reports of old cases have great importance in law, particularly in common law systems. Another reason is that rewriting laws is a slow and painstaking process. The words must try to cover every eventuality, because people are always looking for a legal loophole, a way of avoiding a legal duty by making use of an ambiguity or an omission in law. Consequently if there is an existing law which has worked for a long time, even a law which contains old language in long and complex sentences, it is easier to retain the old law than write a new one. Even when a government draws up a new law it is often guided by the wording of an older law.

But perhaps the main reason that legalese still survives lies in the nature of law itself. Laws are attempts to implement justice, government policy, or just plain common sense. In order to be effective they must be as unambiguous as possible. Everyday language is often very ambiguous, but this does not matter if we are dealing with familiar situations or talking to people we know. The law, however, has to regulate relations between people who neither know nor trust each other and who are in unfamiliar situations. It is an unfortunate necessity that this sometimes requires complex language which has to be explained by experts. English legalese is characterized by:

1.Words and expressions which have no meaning for non-lawyers, some of them coming from Latin or French. For example: replevin—the right to take back goods which were illegally removed; nemo dat (quod non habet)—the principle that a person has no right to property acquired from a person who did not legally own it; cy-pres—the court's right to grant property to another similar charity if the charity the donor hoped to benefit does not exist.

2.Words which look like ordinary English but have a special meaning when used by lawyers. For example: nuisance — interference with someone's enjoyment of land; consideration — something given or given up on making a contract.

3.Formal words which most people understand but which are very oldfashioned. For example: hereinafter—from now on; below in this document; aforesaid—previously mentioned.

4.Very long sentences containing many clauses which limit and define the original state-

ment.

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Disappeared, incomprehensible, repaid, unambiguous, unfamiliar, unfortunate, non-lawyers, illegally.

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"No will shall be valid unless:

(a)it is in writing, and signed by the testator or some other person in his presence and by his direction; and

(b)it appears that the testator intended by his signature to give effect to the will; and

(c)the signature is made or acknowledged by the testator in the presence of two or more witnesses present at the same time; and

(d)each witness either-

(e)attests and signs the will; or

(f)acknowledges his signature in the presence of the testator (but not necessarily in the presence of any other witness), but no form of attestation shall be necessary."

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Ted writes out a will leaving all his property to his wife. He phones his friends Al and Bill to come over and witness the will. While he is waiting for them to arrive, he signs his will. When Al and Bill arrive he shows them the will and says “You see I’ve signed it at the bottom.” Al signs his own name and then leaves. While Ted is out of the room saying goodbye to Al, Bill signs the will. When Ted comes back in Bill says “Look, here’s my signature.”

UNIT 5. TEST YOURSELF

1. ' .

The English word 'law' refers to limits upon various ___1_______. Some laws are

___2______: they simply describe how people, or even natural phenomena, usually behave. An example is the rather consistent law of gravity; another is the less consistent laws of economics. Other laws are ______3_____ — they prescribe how people ought to behave. For example, the speed lim-

146

its imposed upon drivers that prescribe how fast we should drive. They rarely describe how fast we actually do drive, of course.

In all societies, relations between people are regulated by prescriptive laws. Some of them are

____4____ — that is, informal rules of social and moral behavior. Some are __5_____ we accept if we belong to particular social institutions, such as religious, educational and cultural groups. And some are precise laws made by nations and enforced against all citizens within their power.

Customs need not to be made by ___6______, and they need not be written down. We learn how we are expected to ___7____ in society through the instruction of family and teachers, the advice of friends, and our experiences in dealing with strangers. Sometimes, we can ___8____ these rules without suffering any penalty. But if we continually break the rules, or break a very important one, other members of society may ridicule us, act violently toward us or refuse to have anything to do with us. The ways in which people talk, eat and drink, work, and relax together are usually called customs.

Members of every ____9_____ have made laws for themselves in self-protection. If it were not for the law, you could not go out in daylight without the fear of being kidnapped, robbed or murdered. In the absence of law you could only rely upon _____10________.

Every country tries, therefore, to provide laws, which will help its people to live safely and comfortably. This is not at all an easy thing to do. No country has been successful in producing laws, which are entirely satisfactory. But the imperfect laws are better than none.

_____________________________________________________________________________

forms of behaviour, descriptive, prescriptive, customs, rules, governments, behave, break, com-

munity, the law of the jungle.

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1.The types of law.

2.Laws and customs.

3.The need for law.

4.Law and society.

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~ law and order – $

5. law – ,

common ~ system – descriptive ~s – , $

government(al) ~ – $ literary ~ – $

private ~ – $ public ~ – $

7. public – !',

~duty – $

~figure – " $

~morality – $

~ officer – " & ", , & ~ opinion –

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respect owner’s ~ – & $ ~ order – $ "

9.rule – 1. , , , ; 2.

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~s of practice – $ ~ the law - $

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~ a case – # $ , $

~a charge – # $

~an offence – $

~one’s case – &$

149

MODULE 6

SYSTEM OF LAW. CLASSIFICATIONS OF LAW

UNIT 1. BRANCHES OF LAW

D

E F

G H

150