2. Elizabethan Age
The struggle over the Reformation was resolved by the long and successful reign (1558-1603) of Elizabeth I (the daughter of Henry VIII and Ann Boleyn).
She enjoyed enormous popularity during her life and became an even greater legend after her death. Elizabeth firmly established Protestantism in England, encouraged English enterprise and commerce, defended the nation against the powerful Spanish naval force known as the Spanish Armada. A long war between England and Spain from 1585 to 1604 began. Spain was determined to keep other Europeans out of the New World. The defeat of the Spanish Armada of 1588 increased the self-confidence of the Elizabethans and gave a patriotic inspiration to the brilliant Elizabethan Age. This was expressed creatively in literature and the arts, in a general cultural renaissance, and in scientific development, particularly in cosmography and navigation.
During Elizabeth’s reign, England expanded trade overseas, private shipbuilding boomed, and navigational advances made long sea voyages safer. The desire to expand overseas trade was also a motive in the ventures of English explorers such as Sir Francis Drake, Sir Humphrey Gilbert and Sir Walter Raleigh.
The Elizabethans renewed voyages across the Atlantic and around the world. Some English settlements were established in North America. Voyages searching for a Northeast Passage opened up direct sea routes to Russia and Persia. From 1580 direct trade with Turkey and the Middle East began.
Elizabeth I was the last of the Tudor monarchs, never marrying or producing an heir, and was succeeded by her cousin, James VI of Scotland.
Union and Division
CIVIL WARS (1642 -1651)
The long-term causes of the war was the growing wealth of the middle classes (gentry and merchants), who made up a majority in the House of Commons and demanded a larger influence upon the government, and the insufficiency of the king’s hereditary finances, which made him dependent on the Commons whenever he was involved in the foreign wars. The Commons disliked the way Charles I raised new taxes without their consent. From the outbreak of the war Oliver Cromwell had been an active and committed officer in the parliamentary army. Cromwell led major military campaigns to establish English control over Ireland (1649-50) and then Scotland (1650 -51). In the summer of 1650 before embarking for Scotland, Cromwell had been appointed lord general (commander-in-chief) of all the parliamentary forces. So, it was a war between the Royalists who became known as Cavaliers and the supporters of Parliament who came to be called Roundheads (hair cut short to fit a steel helmet). The Royalists were superior in cavalry until the formation of Parliament’s New Model Army. And parliamentary forces won because they were able to finance a professional army.
England, Scotland, and Ireland became a republic called first the Commonwealth, later the Protectorate, with Cromwell as Lord Protector. In 1657, Parliament wanted to give Cromwell the title of king, but he refused it.
The death of the Protector, in his 59th year threw all his achievement into disarray. His son Richard, named as his successor, was well-intentioned but not of his father’s calibre. The army began to disintegrate into factions. The parliament called by Richard was equally riven by contrary opinions, with many royalist sympathisers. He dissolved it in April 1659 and resigned his post. Charles II was invited to assume his father’s English crown.
In 1666 began the great fire of London.