It is important to realize that research designs need not be viewed as mutually exclusive. As was

CHAPTER TWO ♦ METHODS OF

SOCIOLOGICAL RESEARCH

BOX ♦ 2-2

CURRENT RESEARCH

UNDERSTANDING TABLES AND GRAPHS

Tables allow social scien­tists to summarize data and make it easier for them to develop conclusions. A cross-tabulation is a type of table that illustrates the relationship be­tween two or more characteristics. During 1987, the Gallup organi­zation polled 1005 Americans, ages 18 and over, regarding the issue of sex discrimination by pri­vate clubs. Each was interviewed and asked: "Do you think that pri­vate clubs should or should not have the right to exclude prospec­tive members on the basis of their sex?" There is no way that, without some type of summary, analysts in the Gallup organization could ex­amine hundreds of individual re­sponses and reach firm conclu­sions. However, through use of the cross-tabulation presented in the accompanying table, we can quickly see that women object more frequently than men to any such exclusion on the basis of gen­der.

Graphs, like tables, can be quite useful for sociologists. The accom­panying illustration is an example of a graph known as a pictograph.

Pictographs use symbols to show the relationship between different characteristics.

The illustration here shows that in 1985 the state of Alaska spent about four times as much per pupil on elementary and secondary edu­cation as Mississippi did. How­ever, this pictograph relies on a visual misrepresentation. Through use of two dimensions—length and width—the graph inflates the size of the expenditure level for Alaska. Although it should appear about 4 times as large as the Mississippi level, the Alaskan money bag actu­ally appears about 16 times as large. Thus, the graph misleads readers as to the comparative spending levels of the two states.

This example underscores the fact that tables and graphs can be easily misunderstood and can even be deceptive. If you are reading a table, be sure to study carefully the title, the labels for variables, and any footnotes. If you are examining a pictograph, check to see if the visual representations seem to re­flect accurately the statistics being illustrated (Fitzgerald and Cox, 1984; Huff, 1954:69).

Direct Expenditures per Student for Elementary and Secondary Education, 1985

Alaska $8728

Mississippi $2128

souRCe: Bureau of the Census, 1987b:2.

Pictographs, such as the one shown here, can be misleading. The money bag for Alaska is about four times as long as that for Mississippi, reflecting the fact that Alaska spent about four times as much state funding on direct expenditures for elementary and secondary education. However, the money bag for Alaska occupies about 16 times the area on the page. This gives readers a false impression of the two states' comparative levels of funding for education.

Attitudes on Private Clubs' Right to Exclude Members on the Basis of Gender

RESPONDENT		FAVOR CLUBS' RIGHT TO EXCLUDE, PERCENT	OPPOSE CLUBS' RIGHT TO EXCLUDE, PERCENT	NO OPINION, PERCENT
Men Women		39 25	57 69	4 6
n = 1,005 source: Gallup	Report

Survey question: "Do you think that private clubs should or should not have the right to exclude prospective members on the basis of their sex?"

illustrated in the previous example, two or more methods used together may be especially inform­ative. Moreover, researchers do not need to de­vise a totally new research design in all cases. The term replication refers to the repetition of a given investigation in substantially the same way it was originally conducted, either by the original scien­tist or by other scientists. Box 2-3 (page 50) con­siders the advantages of replicating earlier socio­logical research.