Workplace

A fundamental aspect of human socialization in­volves learning to behave appropriately within an occupation. In the United States, working full time serves to confirm adult status; it is an indica­tion to all that one has passed out of adolescence. In a sense, socialization into an occupation can represent both a harsh reality ("I have to work in order to buy food and pay the rent") and the real­ization of an ambition ("I've always wanted to be an airline pilot") (W. Moore, 1968:862).

Occupational socialization cannot be separated from the socialization experiences that occur during childhood and adolescence. We are most fully exposed to occupational roles through observing the work of our parents, of people whom we meet while they are performing their duties (doctors, firefighters, etc.), and of people portrayed in the media (presidents, professional athletes, and so forth). These observations, along with the subtle messages we receive within a culture, help to shape—and often limit—the type of work we may consider.

Wilbert Moore (1968:871-880) has divided occupational socialization into four phases. The first phase is career choice, which involves selection of academic or vocational training appropriate for the desired job. If one hopes to become a phy­sician, one must take certain courses, such as biol­ogy and chemistry, which are required of appli­cants to medical school. If one's goal is to become a violin maker, it will be useful to work as an ap­prentice for an expert practicing that craft.

The next phase identified by Moore is anticipa­tory socialization, which may last only a few months or extend for a period of years. Some American children "inherit" their occupations because their parents run farms or "ma and pa" stores. In Box 4-2, we saw an example of occupational inherit­ance in the case of Dari, the son of Choto Nath, a snaker. In a sense, these young people are ex­periencing anticipatory socialization throughout childhood and adolescence as they observe their parents at work. In addition, certain individuals decide on occupational goals at relatively early ages and never waver from their choices. A young woman or man may resolve to become a dancer at the age of 11 or 12; the entire adoles­cent period may focus on training for that future. The third phase of occupational socialization— conditioning and commitment—occurs while one ac­tually occupies the work-related role. Conditioning consists of reluctantly adjusting to the more un­pleasant aspects of one's job. Most people find that the novelty of a new daily schedule quickly wears off and then realize that parts of the work experience are rather tedious. Moore uses the term commitment to refer to the enthusiastic acceptance of pleasurable duties that comes as the recruit identifies the positive tasks of an occupation.

In Moore's view, if a job proves to be satisfac­tory, the person will enter a fourth stage of social­ization, which he calls continuous commitment. At this point, the job becomes an indistinguishable part of the person's self-identity. Violation of proper conduct becomes unthinkable. A person may choose to join professional associations, un­ions, or other groups which represent his or her occupation in the larger society.

Occupational socialization can be most intense immediately after one makes the transition from school to the job, but it continues through one's work history. Technological advances may alter the requirements of the position and necessitate some degree of resocialization. Thus, after years of working at typewriters, secretaries may find themselves adjusting to sophisticated word-processing equipment. In addition, many Ameri­cans change occupations, employers, or places of work during their adult years. Therefore, occu­pational socialization continues throughout a per­son's years in the labor market (Mortimer and Simmons, 1978:440-441; see also Becker et al., 1961; Ritzer, 1977).

♦ SUMMARY

Socialization is the process whereby people learn the attitudes, values, and actions appropriate to individuals as members of a particular culture. This chapter exam­ines the role of socialization in human development; the way in which people develop perceptions, feelings, and beliefs about themselves; and the lifelong nature of the socialization process.

1. Socialization affects the overall cultural practices of a society, and it also shapes the images that we hold of ourselves.

2. It is an oversimplification to draw a sharp line be­tween the physical and social aspects of human devel­opment.

3. In the early 1900s, Charles Horton Cooley ad­vanced the belief that we learn who we are by interact­ing with others.

4. George Herbert Mead is best known for his theory of the self. He proposed that as people mature, their selves begin to reflect their concern about reactions from others.

5. Erving Goffman has shown that many of our daily activities involve attempts to convey distinct impres­sions of who we are.

6. On the basis of research involving American men, psychologist Daniel J. Levinson identified three major transitional periods which occur primarily after adoles­cence: the early-adult transition, the midlife transition, and the late-adult transition.

7. While Levinson's conclusions are relevant for some women, expectations at different stages of sociali­zation are not necessarily the same for men and women.

8. The family is the most important agent of sociali­zation in the United States, especially for children.

9. As the primary agents of socialization, parents play a critical role in guiding children into those gen­der roles deemed appropriate in a society.

10. Like the family, schools have an explicit mandate to socialize Americans—and especially children—into the norms and values of our culture.

11. Peer groups frequently assist adolescents in gain­ing some degree of independence from parents and other authority figures.

Television has been criticized as an agent of socialization because it encourages children to forsake human interaction for passive viewing.

13. We are most fully exposed to occupational roles through observing the work of our parents, of people whom we meet while they are performing their duties, and of people portrayed in the media.

14. As more and more mothers of young children have entered the American labor market, the demand for day care has increased dramatically.

♦ KEY TERMS

Anticipatory socialization Processes of socialization in which a person "rehearses" for future positions, oc­cupations, and social relationships, (page 103)

Degradation ceremony An aspect of the socialization process within total institutions, in which people are subjected to humiliating rituals. (106)

Dramaturgical approach A view of social interaction, popularized by Erving Goffman, under which peo­ple are examined as if they were theatrical perform­ers. (98)

Face-work A term used by Erving Goffman to refer to people's efforts to maintain the proper image and avoid embarrassment in public. (98)

Gender roles Expectations regarding the proper be­havior, attitudes, and activities of males and females. (107)

Generalized others A term used by George Herbert Mead to refer to the child's awareness of the atti­tudes, viewpoints, and expectations of society as a whole. (98)