Infinitives

Infinitives are noninflected verbs that are often preceded by to. They may function as adverbs:

I struggle to understand.

They may function as nouns:

To read is good for the mind.

And they may function as adjectives:

I don’t have time to eat.

In English, the infinitive verb form is often introduced by the particle to, as in to eat or to run. The resulting phrase can then function as a subject or object, or as a modifier.^[5]

• To succeed takes courage, foresight, and luck. (Here to succeed is the subject of takes.)

• I don't have time to waste.

• Carol was asked to speak. (Here to speak is the object of asked, comparable to Carol was asked a question.)

• Do not stop to chat.

An infinitive phrase consists of an infinitive and any related words.

• Paul wanted to learn silk screening. (The infinitive phrase to learn silk screening is the object ofwanted.)

Gerunds

A gerund is an -ing verb that functions as a noun—for example:

Are you into reading?

Sailing is my favorite sport.

When the same words are used as adjectives, they are participles.

A gerund is a verbal noun that refers to the action of the verb. In English, a gerund has the same form as a present participle (see above), ending in -ing:

• Fencing is good exercise. (Here fencing is the subject of is.)

• Leroy betrayed his team by charging. (Here charging is the object of by.)

A gerund phrase is a phrase consisting of a gerund and any adverbials and/or arguments; the gerund is the head of such a phrase:

• My evening routine involves jogging slowly around the block. (Here jogging slowly around the block is the direct object of involves.)

Participles

Participles are -ed and -ing verbs that function as adjectives—for example:

The sleeping cat is brown.

The freshly picked tomatoes look delicious.

I am going to the store.

The kids were dropped off at school.

A participle is a verbal adjective that describes a noun as being a participant in the action of the verb. English has two kinds of participles: a present participle, also called an imperfect participle, which ends in -ing and which ordinarily describes the agent of an action, and a past participle, also called a perfect participle, which typically ends in -ed (but can also end in -en, -t, or none of these), and which ordinarily describes the patient of an action.

The following sentences contain participles:

• The talking children angered the teacher. (Here talking modifies children.)

• Annoyed, Rita ate dinner by herself in the bedroom. (Here annoyed modifies Rita.)

In English, the present participle is used in forming the continuous aspect (to be doing); the past participle is used in forming the passive voice (to be done) and the perfect (to have done).

A participial phrase is a phrase consisting of a participle and any adverbials and/or arguments; the participle is the head of such a phrase:

• Gazing at the picture, she recalled the house where she was born. (Here gazing at the picturemodifies she.)

A relative clause in the active or passive voice can be reduced to a phrase known as a reduced adjective clause by utilizing a present or past participle.^[3] The reduced adjective clause can be formed even if the present participle is not used as a predicate in the clause.^[4]

• The students who were fidgeting in their seats were anxious about the test.

• The students who fidgeted in their seats were anxious about the test.

• The students fidgeting in their seats were anxious about the test.

The use of commas can indicate a restrictive or nonrestrictive sense.^[3]

• The students fidgeting in their seats were anxious about the test. (Only those students who were fidgeting were anxious. It is implied that other students were not fidgeting and, thus, not anxious.)

• The students, fidgeting in their seats, were anxious about the test. (All the students in the group being considered were both fidgeting and anxious).