8. TECHNOLOGY AND ENGINEERING
ever constructed, and their coast (10) road was only slightiy shorter. Rivers were spanned by cantilever or pontoon bridges, deep valleys by ropes suspend (11) bridges.
Most of the Inca cities were designed around the centre (12) plaza, with a sun temple in the center flanked by the palaces of the noble (13). Their very uniform (14) showed the firmness of the central control. Irony (15), it was this brilliantly maintained centralize (16) which was the cause of their ultimate destroy (17); for when the great Inca Atahualpa fell to the army of Pizarro in 1532, his Empire perished with him.
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CHANNELS AND CANALS
Canals are art (1) waterways cut through the land to irrigation (2) fields or for transport while channels are natural passages: geography (3) or otherwise (the English Channel, TV channels). Canals have been cut since the earliest days of civilization, note (4) in ancient Egypt.
The Romans were great canal engineers and left vast canal works in many of the provinces they governor (5). Amazingly, Caesar’s plan concept (6) two thousand years ago to cut a canal on the Isthmus of Corinth, in Greece was eventually real (7) in 1893.
The first canal to be built in England in modern times was Worsley canal construction (8 to the order of Duke Bridgewater who was anxiety (9) to move the coal supplies from his minefields to Manchester quicker than it was possible by road. One Of the most strategy (10) important canals is the Suez Canal (160 km in length) between Port Said and Suez in Egypt, which allows pass (11) from the Mediterranean Sea to the Red Sea. It was engineered by Ferdinand de Lesseps, a French engineer and diplomat, who after its complete went on to construct the Panama Canal, but his efforts did not material (12) completely. The Panama Canal measuring 50 miles is two (13) smaller than the Suez Canal.
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TOWER BRIDGE
Tower
Bridge is one of London’s most famous limit
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and many visitors to the city think that it is the origin
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London Bridge. Actually, that bridge, the only one cross (3) the river in the Middle Ages, is far (4) up the river. Tower Bridge was not built until 1894. In those
days the Thames was navigate (5) so the bridge had to be opened whenever the ship approached. Nowadays the rule is that ships should give twenty hours’ note (6) for the bridge to be lifted. Former (7), pedestrians were not allowed on the walkways rise (8) 50 meters above the water, but now visit (9) can cross the bridge on them and there are all sorts of devise (10) enabling to enjoy the view. Over half a million visitors come every year and there is an exhibit (11) for children showing how the bridge works. The fascinate (12) story of the Bridge is shown through animal (13) figures shown at different moments in its history.
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THE GOLDEN GATE BRIDGE
The Golden Gate Bridge has linked San Francisco and the Marin Peninsula for more 50 years. However, its construct (1) was no easy task. The idea of Sink (2) the two was not a new one, but it wasn't until 1917 that the first working draw (3) was produced. It would take twenty years to completion (4) the bridge, and from the outset there were vary (5) difficulties: rough waters, the often fog (6) conditions and the danger of earthquakes , all combined to make construction of this bridge a much trick (7) business than that of the erect
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of New York's George Washington Bridge.
The Golden Gate Bridge, which was then the largest in the world, was finished on May 27th, 1937. California (9) flocked to their new land (10) and walked from one end to the other the next day it was opened.
For the past 58 years it has been part of day (11) life for millions of commute (12). Of course, its paintwork must be kept in good condition. A 28-man team is response (13) for this. If you thought Michelangelo needed a good head for high (14) to paint the Sistine Chapel ceiling, just imagine these men. The bridge stands at 4,200 feet. According to the paint (15), the trick is never to look down.
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DAMS
Dams are structures confining/confirming (1) and checking the flow of a river, stream or estuary to diverse/divert (2) its flow, improve navigation, store water for irrigation or city supplies or raise/arouse (3) its level for use in power generation. Often a creation/recreation (4) area is made as a by-product.
Dams are one of the earliest known man-made constructions/structures (5), records existing from с 2900 ВС of a 15 m-high dam on the Nile. Construction/Structure (6) methods were largely empirical until 1866, when the first scientifically designed/projected (7) dam was built in France.
Dams are classified by profile and building material, these being determined/defined (8) by availability and site. They must be strong enough to hold back water; stand/withstand (9) ice, silt and uplift pressures, and stresses from temperature changes and earthquakes.
The site must have stable/steady (10) earth or rock foundation that will not unduly compress, squeeze out or let water seep under the dam. Boring, seismic tests,
constructional structural (11) models and computer simulations/similarities (12) arc all
design aids.
only to await the end of the 19th century for the arrive (14) of the internal combustion engine.
The gold (15) age of steam was splendid, but short-lived: it lasted only a century, from the mid-19th to the mid-20th century. It did however have the huge advantage of sure (16) the expansion of industrial mechanical (17) and of allowing rapid transport.
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BALLOON
attributed conceived craft direction dizzy forerunners generated hollow impressed peculiar predated priest propulsion succession vain
The
first ever balloon flight was made in France in 1783 by the
brothers Etienne and Joseph Montgolfier. They had been (1) by
Priestley’s ideas on gas, and had also been the first to have the idea of
filling a (2) geometrical structure with air. The success of the
Montgolfier brothers’ experiment does not necessarily mean that they are to be (3) with the invention of the balloon. At the beginning of the
15 th century the German Konrad Kyeser, one of the great inventors of the
end of the Middle Ages, had designed a fantastic (4) which really
was a lighter-than-air flying machine. This (5) device was (6) on
the principle of hot-air ballooning; a powerful burner (7) hot air
which lifted the craft, which was in the shape of a dragon.
The origin of this principle, which undoubtedly (8) Kyeser’s idea, is unknown; in any
case, the principle was widely known at the time of the Montgolfiers. Indeed, a few years
before them the Brazilian (9) Joao Gusmao had also tried to make a lighter-than-air craft,
but in (10) .
Since the end of the 18th century a (11) of attempts was made in order to correct
some technical and design faults of the balloon and to learn how to control the (12) of its
flight. Not many people reached (13) heights in this field. Yet, they can be considered as
(14) of the Frenchman Henry Giffard who in 1851 was the first to design and make a
lighter-than-air craft. This was provided with a system of mechanical (15) by steam, a
propeller and a rudder: Gillard invented the airship.
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AIRSHIP, DIRIGIBLE, ZEPPELINЕ
Airship or dirigible is any aircraft that is lighter than air and consisting/composing (1) of an ellipsoidal balloon in the form of hull which was equipped with storing/steering (2) mechanism, propellers and space for crew, passengers and cargo. It had long been recognized that the difficulty with balloons was driving/navigating (3) through the air. Oars were tried, but were not successful. The first effort/attempt (4) to navigate the balloon by means/meaning (5) of a small, light engine came in 1852, the experience/experiment (6) being made by Henri Giffard.
Count Ferdinand von Zeppelin (1838-1917) was German military leader, designer/projector (7), manufacturer and pilot of airships. A zeppelin is rigid/rigorous (8) airship having a long, cylindrical body supported/maintained (9) by internal gas cells. From
1897 the development, of the airship was the special work of Ferdinand von Zeppelin. The airship maintaining/sustaining (10) its form by means of internal carcass/framework (11) was named after him. In 1900 he made his first flight with a dirigible balloon bringing/carrying (12) five men. It was made of aluminum and driven/ridden (13) by two motors, each of about 12 kW. His third craft met with great success. It attained/obtained (14) a speed of 55 kmh and carried 11 passengers, but was injured/wrecked (15) by a storm in 1908 and was completely collapsed/destroyed (16).