13. From the denotational point of view the meaning of the words can be changed into generalization and specialization of words. Give their definitions and examples to them.

Results of semantic change can be generally observed in the changes of the denotational meaning of the word (extension and restriction of meaning) or in the alteration of its connotational component (amelioration and deterioration of meaning). Changes in the denotational meaning may result in the restriction of the types or range of referents denoted by the word. Restriction of meaning is called specialization of meaning or narrowing of meaning. It is gradual process when a word passes from a general sphere to some special sphere of communication. The meaning of a word can specialize when it remains in the general usage. It happens in the case of the conflict between two absolute synonyms when one of them must specialize in its meaning to remain in the language. F: the City –the business part of London, Oxford-university town in England, the Tower-originally a fortress and palace, later a prison, now-a museum, room – originally a space, now-dining room, sleeping room

Changes in the denotational meaning may also result in the application of the word to a wider variety of referents. This is commonly described as extension of meaning. If the word with the extended meaning passes from the specialized vocabulary into common use, we describe the result of the semantic change as the generalization of meaning or broadening of meaning. F: the word borrowed into Middle English from old French where it was persone and came from Latin persona “the mask used by an actor, one who plays a part, a character in a play”. The great theatre spaces in ancient Rome made it impossible for the spectators to see the actor’s face and facial changes. It was also difficult to hear his voice distinctly. That is why masks with a megaphonic effect were used (chairperson, policeperson, salesperson, workperson)

14. State out the types of Homonyms.

We can mention three types of homonyms.

1) homonyms proper are the words which are the same in sound and spelling, e.g. ball-ball

2) homophones are words which are the same in sound but different in spelling, e.g. bean-been 3) homographs are words which are the same in spelling but different in sound, e.g. to lead-to conduct on the way, go before to show the way; lead-a heavy, rather soft metal

Homonyms may belong both the same and to different categories of parts of speech. According to professor A.I.Smirnitsky classified homonyms into two large classes:

1) full or complete homonyms. They are words which represent the same category of parts of speech and have the same paradigm. Paradigm is the system of the grammatical forms of a word. F: match (n)- a game, a contest; match (n)-a short piece of wood used for producing fire.

2) partial homonyms are subdivided into three subgroups: a) simple lexico-grammatical partial homonyms are words which belong to the same category of parts of speech. Their paradigms have one identical form, but it never the same form, as will be seen from the examples as found (v), found (v)-past indef, past part of to find; b) complex lexico-grammatical partial homonyms are words of different categories of parts of speech which have one identical form in their paradigms. F: rose (n)-rose (v)-pas indef, past part of to rise; c) partial lexical homonyms are words of the same category of parts of speech which are identical only in their corresponding forms. F: to hang (hung, hung) (v)- to hang (hanged, hanged) (v)