Glossary

action space See activity space.

activity displacement See functional displacement.

activity node An individual’s past and present homes, current and previous work sites, and residences of partners, friends, and family members.

activity site Any location routinely visited by an individual (e.g., workplace, friend’s residence, neighbourhood bar, etc.)

activity space Those places regularly visited by a person in which the majority of their activities are carried out. It comprises an individual’s activity sites and the routes used to travel between them, and is contained within the awareness space.

ambusher An offender who attacks a victim once he or she has been enticed to a location, such as a residence or workplace, controlled by the offender.

anchor point The base from which an individual resides or regularly operates; usually the single most important location in a person’s life.

anisotropic surface A surface exhibiting different physical properties, such as ease of movement, in various directions.

arson site The location where an offender commits an arson.

ASPD Antisocial personality disorder.

attack site The location where an offender first attacks the victim.

awareness space Locations and areas that a person is aware of and possesses at least a minimum level of knowledge about. It contains, but is larger than, the activity space.

behavioural science The scientific study and analysis of human behaviour. This term is often used to describe the investigative study of criminal behaviour.

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body dump site The location where an offender disposes of the murder victim’s body.

Brantingham and Brantingham crime site selection model A model of crime geometry within the environmental criminology perspective developed at Simon Fraser University. It suggests that crimes are most likely to occur in those areas where an offender’s awareness space intersects with perceived suitable targets.

buffer zone An area centred around the criminal’s residence within which targets are viewed as less desirable because of the perceived risk associated with operating too close to home.

CCA Comparative case analysis.

centre of minimum travel See median centre.

centrography A form of spatial analysis that focuses on the central tendency of a point pattern.

centroid See spatial mean.

CGT Criminal geographic targeting.

choropleth map A thematic map that uses colours or shading to depict variations in areally-based data.

CIA Criminal investigative analysis.

circle hypothesis The hypothesis that marauders reside within their offence circle, while commuters reside without. See marauder, commuter.

clustering The degree of site proximity or grouping in a point pattern. See dispersion.

cluster dump Bodies of several murder victims buried or dumped in the same location or general area.

collateral material Articles not directly associated with a sex offender’s crimes but that provide evidence or information regarding sexual preferences, interests, or activities. These can be erotic, educational, introspective, or intelligence material.

commuter An offender who travels from home into another area to commit his or her crimes. A commuter usually resides outside of the offence circle. See circle hypothesis.

comparative case analysis (CCA) See linkage analysis.

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contagion location A crime site situated close to a previous offence. Such a location is generally regarded for the purposes of geographic profiling as a nonindependent event.

CPA Crime pattern analysis.

crime attractor A place that attracts offenders through its reputation for crime opportunities.

crime generator A high-traffic location that experiences crime as a byproduct of the large number of people who regularly visit there.

crime interval The period of time (usually expressed in days) between successive crimes. Crime intervals are used to calculate the mean crime interval and standard deviation.

crime location A geographic location associated with a given crime. There may be several different locations connected to a single crime; for example, in a homicide there may be victim encounter, attack, murder, and body dump sites.

crime location set The number and grouping of the different locations associated with a crime.

crime parsing The breaking down of a crime into its crime location set. crime pattern analysis (CPA) See linkage analysis.

crime trip An offender’s journey to any location associated with a crime. crime trip distance See journey-to-crime distance.

criminal geographic targeting (CGT) A computerized spatial profiling model that determines the most probable area of offender residence through the production of a jeopardy surface or geoprofile from a criminal hunting algorithm. It is the primary methodology used in geographic profiling.

criminal investigative analysis (CIA) Techniques of psychological profiling and related methods developed and used by the FBI and the ICIAF.

criminal profiling The inference of offender characteristics from offence characteristics. See psychological profiling.

crow-flight distance The shortest distance between two points, measured “as the crow flies.” Compare with Manhattan distance and wheel distance.

curvilinear distance See wheel distance. Also known as curvimetre distance.

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curvimetre distance See wheel distance. Also known as curvilinear distance.

Dirichlet polygon See Thiessen polygon.

disorganized (asocial) offender See disorganized offender.

disorganized offender A criminal personality type used in psychological profiling based on an offender’s lifestyle and the condition of their crime scenes. Disorganized offenders usually act spontaneously and do not plan their crimes. They may suffer from some form of psychosis such as paranoid schizophrenia.

dispersion The degree of site spread in a point pattern. See clustering.

displacement A change in an offender’s pattern of behaviour as the result of crime prevention efforts, community wariness, or police investigative strategies. There are five types of displacement: spatial (territorial), temporal, target, tactical, and functional (activity).

distance decay The reduction in probability of spatial interaction with the increase in distance. Most crime trips follow a distance-decay pattern as measured from the offender’s residence.

EAMD Acronym for encounter, attack, murder, and body dump sites.

ecological fallacy The assumption that results from a higher level of geographic analysis apply to a lower level (in particular, the individual level).

ECRI Environmental Criminology Research Inc.

EDA Equivocal death analysis.

encounter site The location where an offender first comes into contact with the victim.

environmental criminology An area of criminology focusing on the criminal event rather than just the offender. The primary concern of environmental criminology is the crime setting or place, the where and when, of the criminal act.

equivocal death analysis (EDA) A retrospective psychological analysis of the most probable manner of death (accidental, suicidal, or homicidal) in suspicious cases. Also known as psychological autopsy.

fishing hole A location with a high probability for a criminal predator of finding a potential victim, who may then be followed to a different location before being attacked. See crime attractor and hunting ground.

forensic behavioural science Behavioural science as applied to the investigative and court processes. See behavioural science.

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functional displacement A type of displacement resulting from an offender engaging in a different type of criminal behaviour, often resulting from changes in opportunities. Also known as activity displacement. See displacement.

geographic displacement See spatial displacement.

geographic information system (GIS) A computer software system designed to store geographic attributes and integrate spatial and other data for analytic purposes.

geographic profiling An information management strategy for serial violent crime investigation that analyzes crime site information to determine the most probable area of offender residence.

geography of crime The study of the geography associated with crime, targets, and criminals.

geoprofile A two-dimensional jeopardy (probability) surface overlaid on a map of the hunting area.

GIS Geographic information system.

global positioning system A handheld device that provides latitude and longitude coordinates based on a satellite fix.

GPS Global positioning system.

hit percentage See hit score percentage.

hit score The CGT likelihood value (z-score) associated with the location of an offender’s residence or anchor point. See z-score.

hit score percentage An indicator of search efficiency used in geographic profiling, measured by determining the proportion of the total hunting area covered before the offender’s residence is encountered. The smaller this number, the better the focus of the geoprofile.

HITS Homicide Investigation Tracking System, the Washington State-based computerized linkage analysis system for murders and sexual offences.

HOLMES Home Office Large Major Enquiry System, the major case management system used by British police forces.

hot spot A small geographic area containing a disproportionate number of criminal offences.

hunter An offender who sets out specifically to hunt for a victim, basing the search from his or her residence.

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hunting area A rectangular zone bounded by the crime locations. It is the area within which the geoprofile is generated.

hunting behaviour The victim search and attack processes engaged in by an offender.

hunting ground The territory within which an offender searches for victims. See fishing hole and trap line.

ICIAF International Criminal Investigative Analysis Fellowship.

indirect personality assessment (IPA) A behavioural evaluation of a criminal suspect to assist in the determination of the most effective interview, cross-examination, and other investigative techniques.

International Criminal Investigative Analysis Fellowship (ICIAF) An association of police criminal profilers, originally initiated by the FBI but now an independent professional body. Also known as the Police Fellowship.

IPA Indirect personality assessment.

isoline map See isopleth map.

isopleth map A map depicting isopleths (also known as isolines), or lines of equal data value.

isotropic surface A surface exhibiting equal physical properties, such as ease of movement, in all directions.

jeopardy surface A three-dimensional probability surface, produced by the CGT algorithm, depicting the most probable area of offender residence.

journey-to-crime distance The distance between a crime site and the offender’s residence.

linkage analysis The comparison of crimes to determine whether they were committed by the same offender(s). Linkages can be established through physical evidence, eyewitnesses, or behavioural similarities such as modus operandi (M.O.) and signature. Also known as crime pattern analysis.

linkage analysis system A computerized database that searches for behavioural similarities between crimes in an effort to connect them.

linkage blindness The inability to link connected crimes together, usually resulting from a lack of coordination and information sharing between law enforcement agencies.

macrolevel spatial analysis The study of geographic phenomena on a national or international level.

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major case management system A computer system designed to store, collate, compare, and analyze investigative information in serious crimes.

Manhattan distance Distance measured along an orthogonal (e.g., northing and easting) grid layout of street blocks. See wheel distance.

Manhattan metric Measurement using Manhattan distances.

marauder An offender whose residence acts as the focus for his or her crimes. A marauder usually resides within the offence circle. See circle hypothesis.

mass arson An arson incident in which several fires are set simultaneously, or within a relatively short time period in the same general area.

mass murder A murder incident in which several victims are killed simultaneously, or within a relatively short time period in the same general area.

mean centre See spatial mean.

median centre The position from which travel to all the points in a spatial distribution (i.e., the sum of the distances) is minimized.

median distance The radius of a circle encompassing one half of the points in a spatial distribution.

mental map Cognitive images or representations of familiar geographic areas such as neighbourhoods or cities.

mesolevel spatial analysis The study of geographic phenomena on a regional or intercity level.

microenvironment The immediate environment surrounding a site, on the scale of a block or intersection.

microlevel spatial analysis The study of geographic phenomena on an individual, neighbourhood, or urban level.

multiple murder Mass, spree, or serial murder.

murder site The location where an offender murders the victim.

nearest neighbour analysis Various statistical analyses of nearest neighbour distances.

nearest neighbour distances Various measure of distances between points and their closest (or k-nearest) neighbours as a means of quantifying location spacing. See point pattern statistics.

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offence circle The circle formed from a diameter produced by the line connecting the two crime sites in a connected offence series most distant from each other.

offence interval See crime interval.

offender profiling A general approach to criminal profiling including psychological, geographic, and statistical profiling methods. See criminal profiling.

organized nonsocial offender See organized offender.

organized offender A criminal personality type used in psychological profiling based on an offender’s lifestyle and the condition of their crime scenes. Organized offenders usually plan their crimes. They are typically intelligent, and sane but psychopathic.

Orion See Rigel.

parsing See crime parsing.

path routing A path that follows the shortest possible street route. While this can be measured simply in terms of distance, more sophisticated techniques incorporate estimates of path travel time. See wheel distance.

pattern theory A multidisciplinary approach that combines rational choice and routine activity theory to explain the distribution of crime and criminal behaviour. Offender target choice is affected by their interactions with the physical and social environments. Also known as crime pattern theory.

poacher An offender who sets out specifically to search for a victim, basing the search from an activity site other than his or her residence, or who travels to another city during the victim search process. See commuter.

point pattern The two-dimensional pattern produced by a series of spatial locations.

point pattern statistics Statistical measures derived from various distance calculations within a point pattern. See nearest neighbour distances.

Police Fellowship See International Criminal Investigative Analysis Fellowship.

premeditated opportunism The practice of exploiting criminal opportunities after an initial degree of preparation and planning.

principle of least action The minimization of quantities within dynamic systems (e.g., energy, distance, time, change, effort, cost, etc.).

profiling See criminal profiling.

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psychological autopsy See equivocal death analysis.

psychological profiling The identification of the major personality and behavioural characteristics of an individual based upon an analysis of the crimes he or she has committed. Also known as criminal personality assessment or criminal behaviour profiling.

rape site The location where an offender rapes the victim.

raptor An offender who attacks a victim directly upon encounter.

rational choice theory A theoretical perspective in which crime and criminal behavior are viewed as the outcomes of choices influenced by the offender’s rational consideration of the risk, effort, and reward associated with different decisions.

release site See victim release site.

remission A period of inactivity, ranging from weeks to years, between the crimes of a serial offender. It can result from either episodic behaviour or temporal displacement.

Rigel The geographic profiling computer software based on the CGT algorithm. The prototype version was named Orion.

routine activities The activities and behaviours engaged in by people on a regular (e.g., daily, weekly, seasonal) basis.

routine activity theory The opportunity structure for crime based upon the convergence in space and time of motivated offenders, suitable targets, and the absence of capable guardians.

routine pathway The regularly used streets or routes connecting a related set of activity nodes.

scenario The selection of crime locations and their associated weighting used in a given geoprofile.

search area The hit score percentage translated into area size.

serial arson Three or more separate arson events with an emotional coolingoff period between fires.

serial murder Three or more separate murder events with an emotional cooling-off period between homicides.

serial rape Three or more separate rape events with an emotional coolingoff period between attacks.

singularity A single offence that does not appear to fit the overall pattern in a crime series.

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spatial displacement A type of displacement resulting from an offender relocating his or her criminal activity in response to a perceived increase in the risk of apprehension or reduction in opportunity. Also known as geographic or territorial displacement. See displacement.

spatial mean A univariate measure of the central tendency of a point pattern, the geographic “centre of gravity.” Also known as the centroid or mean centre.

spree arson Three or more arsons at different locations with no emotional cooling-off period in between. The fires are all the result of a single event. Spree arson is an intermediate classification between mass and serial arson.

spree murder Three or more murders at different locations with no emotional cooling-off period in between. The killings are all the result of a single event. Spree murder is an intermediate classification between mass and serial murder.

stalker An offender who upon encountering a victim, follows them to attack at a later place and time.

standard distance A measure of spatial dispersion analogous to the standard deviation.

structural backcloth See target backcloth.

tactical displacement A type of displacement resulting from an offender using alternative strategies or changing his or her modus operandi to achieve the same criminal goals. Tactical displacement is usually the result of learning. See displacement.

target backcloth A spatial opportunity structure configured by both geographic and temporal distributions of suitable crime targets or victims across the physical landscape. Nonuniform or patchy target backcloths are characterized by varying levels of target availability in different areas. Also known as structural backcloth. See anisotropic surface.

target displacement A type of displacement resulting from an offender modifying the selection of premises, objects, or subjects as targets for his or her criminal activities. See displacement.

target location The various geographic sites connected to a crime series including victim encounter, attack, murder, and body dump sites.

target-rich environment An area containing a high density of potential victims or targets. See fishing hole.

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temporal displacement A type of displacement resulting from an offender shifting his or her criminal activity to a different time period in response to perceived changes in risk or opportunity environments. Activity shifts to a period (e.g., time of day, day of week, etc.) with acceptable levels of risk and target availability; this may involve an extended period of offender inactivity. See displacement, remission.

territorial displacement See spatial displacement.

Thiessen polygon A catchment area around a central position; the area within that polygon is closer to its centre than to any other “competing” centre. Also known as a Voronoi or Dirichlet polygon.

trap line A linear fishing hole, typically stretched along a street or commercial strip. See hunting ground.

trapper Trappers have occupations or positions where potential victims come to them (e.g., nursing), or by means of some subterfuge, victims are enticed into their homes or other locations they control (e.g., by placing want ads).

troller An offender who, while involved in other, nonpredatory activities, opportunistically encounters a victim.

VICAP Violent Criminal Apprehension Program, the U.S. national computerized linkage analysis system for murders.

ViCLAS Violent Crime Linkage Analysis System, the Canadian national computerized linkage analysis system for murders and sexual offences.

victim release site The location where an offender releases the victim, often used in the context of a rape or sexual assault case.

victim trail The path taken by a victim (e.g., going home from work), at some unknown point along which they were encountered by the offender.

victimology In the context of profiling, the type (e.g., physical appearance, occupation, actions, etc.) of victim selected by an offender and that person’s behaviour during the crime.

Voronoi polygon See Thiessen polygon.

watering hole See fishing hole.

wheel distance The distance along a street network. Also known as curvimetre distance or path route.

z-score The CGT likelihood value associated with a given location.

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