Some facts from the history of medicine and dentistry

History of oral structures began with the most ancient civilizations. Inscriptions on tombstones in about 3000 BC¹ indicated that "tooth doctors" were already considered to be medical specialists in that period. This means that dentistry was established as a separate branch of medicine approximately 5000 years ago!

The Ancient Egyptians are considered to be the earliest civilized people in the world. They made a serious study of the human body. They removed the main internal organs such as the stomach, liver, kidneys, heart and lungs during the embalming process and learned these parts of the body. However, the remains of Ancient Egyptian show no signs of fillings and there is no firm evidence of attempts to replace missing teeth with false ones.

The early tribes in Mexico and Peru used narcotic substances in the treatment of different disorders, including dental diseases. They used gold and precious stones to decorate their teeth. In China, where medicine began in about 2800 BC, medical men invented acupuncture. They used special very thin needles for that purpose. These needles were also used to relieve dental pain. In about the second century AD² the Chinese developed «silver paste» (amalgam) for fillings. This happened more than a thousand years before dentists in the West discovered this material! Etruscans who lived in Italy during the seventh century BC, made the first real attempts to make dental prostheses (false teeth). They also mace a narrow bands of pure gold to put around loose teeth.

The Ancient Greeks knew the value of good health. One of their goddesses was called Hygeia - goddess of health. Hygeia was the daughter of Asclepius, the god of medicine. The most notable of all the Greek doctors was Hippocrates. He is called the Father of Medicine. Young doctors nowadays take the Hippocratic Oath, which is in fact the Medical Code of Honour. One of the greatest Greek philosophers Aristotle made the earliest attempt to discuss the teeth from the purely scientific point of view. He had described human teeth and then compared them with teeth of several animals. But Aristotle made a mistake - he believed that men had 32 teeth and women only 28! This mistake was corrected only in the 16th century by Doctor Andreas Vesalius. He also classified the teeth as incisors, canines and molars.

The Romans were very efficient in the practice of medicine. Their attitude to health is expressed in a saying: A healthy mind in a healthy body. The Romans used a special powder for cleaning their teeth. They could also make false teeth and even removable dentures from ivory. During the Middle Ages these techniques were largely lost. Books on general medicine often included sections on teeth but the first book devoted entirely to dentistry appeared only in the 16^th century. A small booklet was published anonymously in Germany. The author discussed such topics as toothache, loose teeth and so on. It was a book for patients, not for professionals. Eustachius (1520-1574), an Italian doctor, published the first book for dental professionals in 1563.

¹BC - before Christ - до нашої ери

²AD - anno Domini - нашої ери

POST-TEXT ASSIGNMENTS

Exercise 5. Find in the text English equivalents for the following words and word combinations:

давні цивілізації; клятва Гіппократа; богиня здоров'я; окрема галузь в медицині; маленький буклет; класифікувати зуби; коштовні камені; здоровий дух; прикрашати зуби; внутрішні органи; зубний біль; спеціальні голки; процес бальзамування; штучні зуби; голкотерапія; великий філософ.

Exercise 6. Make up 10 questions to the text.

Exercise 7. Put the predicates into the Past and Future Simple Passive:

1. The teeth are extracted under local anesthesia.

2. You are treated with a new drug.

3. The child is given food rich in vitamins.

4. The oral cavity is lined with mucosa.

5. The roots are held in place by a membrane.

6. The temperature is taken three times a day.

7. The mouth of the patient is examined by a dentist.

Exercise 8. Open the brackets using Simple Passive:

1. Wards (to clean) every day.

2. What language (to speak) in India?

3. Three people (to injure) in the accident.

4. My tooth (not to extract) yesterday.

5. The extremities (to immobilize) with splints.

Exercise 9. Find the corresponding Ukrainian equivalent in the right column:

facial socket mucosa cavity densу bone skull palate parotid sublingual surface

порожнина щільна кість лунка череп слиз піднебіння поверхня під'язиковий i) привушний j) лицевой

Exercise 10. Give the summary of the text.

TEST

1. … is stationary forming part of the skull.

a) the lower jaw

b) the upper jaw

c) the mandible

d) the maxilla

e) the tongue

2. The Lower jaw is made up of two parts: the horse-shoe-shaped horizontal portion and …

a) the tongue c) the ramus

b) the branches d) the gums

e) the chin

3. The major portion of the structure, which makes up the jaw, is dense, hard bone but there is a part which is … in structure.

a) connective

b) cartilage

c) sponge-like

d) tube-like

e) fibrous

4. The roots are held in place in sockets by a membrane, which is called …

a) the gum

b) the cartilage membrane

c) the pulp

d) the periodontal membrane

e) the bone membrane

5. A red, moist, glistening tissue, which is called … forms a protective covering for the tongue, palate, floor of the mouth and the inside of the lips and cheeks, much as the skin does for the rest of the body.

a) the bone membrane

b) the cell membrane

c) the periodontal membrane

d) the cartilage membrane

e) the mucous membrane

6. … glands supply water, ferments and mucus to the food which is ground up by the teeth.

a) the salivary

b) the submaxillaries

c) the thyroid

d) the sublingual

e) the parotids

7. Inscriptions on tombstones in about 3000 BC indicated that … were already considered to be medical specialists in that period.

a) stomatologists

b) tooth doctors

c) dentists

d) oral surgeons

e) therapeutist

8. Dentistry was established as a separate branch of medicine approximately … years ago.

a) 7000 b) 6000 c) 5000 d) 4000 e) 3000

9. The Ancient Egyptians made a serious study of the …

a) oral cavity

b) inner organs

c) dental diseases

d) orthodontology

e) human body

10. However, the remains of Ancient Egyptian show no signs of … and there is no firm evidence of attempts to replace missing teeth with false ones.

a) treatment

b) fillings

c) replacement

d) restoration

e) removing

11. The early tribes in Mexico and Peru used narcotic substances in the treatment of different disorders, including …

a) malocclusion

b) parodontosis

c) toothache

d) dental diseases

e) sensitivity

12. They used … and … to decorate their teeth.

a) iron

b) precious stones

c) bronze

d) silver

e) gold

13. In … , where medicine began in about 2800 BC, medical men invented acupuncture.

a) Japan

b) China

c) Mexico

d) India

e) Peru

14. Hygeia was the daughter of … , the god of medicine.

a) Venus

b) Zeus

c) Apollo

d) Asclepius

e) Hephaestus

15. The most notable of all the … doctors was Hippocrates.

a) Greek

b) Indian

c) China

d) Rome

e) Slavic

16. Young doctors nowadays take the Hippocratic … , which is in fact the Medical Code of Honour.

a) vow

b) swear

c) blasphemy

d) perjury

e) oath

17. One of the greatest Greek philosophers … made the earliest attempt to discuss the teeth from the purely scientific point of view.

a) Diogenes

b) Socrates

c) Aristotle

d) Archimedes

e) Heraclitus

18. The … were very efficient in the practice of medicine.

a) Japanese

b) Egyptian

c) Greek

d) Chinese

e) Romans

19. Books on general medicine often included sections on teeth but the first book devoted entirely to dentistry appeared only in the 16^th century.

a) 14^th century

b) 15^th century

c) 16^th century

d) 17^th century

e) 19^th century

20. A small booklet was published anonymously in …

a) Italy b) Great Britain c) Russia d) Germany e) Spain