I. Give the English equivalents of the following phrases:

• ракетное топливо;

• ракеты служили в качестве бомбардировщиков;

• практическое применение ракет;

• ракета с жидким топливом;

• технология развития нагнетателя воздуха, инжектора и охладительной системы;

• самые знаменитые достижения в ракетостроении;

II. Give definitions to the following words:

rocket, weapon, flight, achievement, propulsion

III. Answer the following questions:

1). When did the technology of rocket propulsion appear for the first time?

2). Who worked on theoretical problems of propulsion-system design in our country?

3). Why was the development of rockets accelerated during the war years?

4). Who conducted a wide array of rocket experiments from 1908 to 1945?

5). What other outstanding rocket developers do you know? What are their achievements in rocketry? Make a short presentation in your group.

Development of rockets

Part II

From 1945 to 1955 propulsion development was still largely determined by military applications. Liquid-propellant engines were refined for use in supersonic research aircraft, intercontinental ballistic missiles (ICBMs), and high-altitude research rockets. Similarly, developments in solid-propellant motors were in the areas of military tactical rocket applications and high-altitude research. Bombardment rockets, aircraft interceptors, antitank weapons, and air-launched rockets for air and surface targets were among the primary tactical applications. Technological advances in propulsion included the perfection of methods for casting solid-propellant charges, development of more energetic solid propellants, introduction of new structural and insulation materials in both liquid and solid systems, manufacturing methods for larger motors and engines, and improvements in peripheral hardware (e.g., pumps, valves, engine-cooling systems, and direction controls). By 1955 most missions called for some form of guidance, and larger rockets generally employed two stages. While the potential for spaceflight was present and contemplated at the time, financial resources were directed primarily toward military applications.

The next decade witnessed the development of large solid-propellant rocket motors for use in ICBMs, a choice motivated by the perceived need to have such systems in ready-to-launch condition for long periods of time. This resulted in a major effort to improve manufacturing capabilities for large motors, lightweight cases, energetic propellants, insulation materials that could survive long operational times, and thrust-direction control. Enhancement of these capabilities led to a growing role for solid-rocket motors in spaceflight. Between 1955 and 1965 the vision of the early pioneers began to be realized with the achievement of Earth-orbiting satellites and manned spaceflight. The early missions were accomplished with liquid-propulsion systems adapted from military rockets. The first successful “all-civilian” system was the Saturn launch vehicle for the Apollo Moon-landing program, which used five 680,000-kilogram-thrust liquid-propellant engines in the first stage. Since then, liquid systems have been employed by most countries for spaceflight applications, though solid boosters have been combined with liquid engines in various first stages of U.S. launch vehicles (those of the Titan 34D, Delta, and Space Shuttle) and solid-rocket motors have been used for several systems for transfer from low Earth orbit to geosynchronous orbit. In such systems, the lower performance of solid-propellant motors is accepted in exchange for the operational simplicity that it provides.

Since 1965, missions have drawn on an ever-expanding technology base, using improved propellants, structural materials, and designs. Present-day missions may involve a combination of several kinds of engines and motors, each chosen according to its function. Because of the performance advantages of energetic propellants and low structural mass, propulsion systems are operated near their safe limits, and one major challenge is to achieve reliability commensurate with the value of the (sometimes human) payload.

Edward W. Price

Essential vocabulary:

1. application – применение;

2. engine – двигатель;

3. high-altitude – высотный;

4. interceptor– истребитель-перехватчик;

5. tocast– бросать;

6. charge– заряд;

7. target– цель, мишень;

8. insulation– изоляция, изоляционный материал;

9. manufacturing– производство, изготовление;

10. improvement– улучшение;

11. valve– клапан;

12. tocontemplate– созерцать, обдумывать, рассматривать, предполагать;

13. satellite– спутник;

14. toaccomplish– совершать, выполнять, достигать;

15. thrust– тяга, толчок;

16. booster– ракета-носитель, стартовый двигатель;

17. tocommensurate– соответствовать, соразмерять;

18. payload- полезная нагрузка;