1. General notes and classification.

2. The functions of different voc-ry groups.

3. Connotations.

1) Accord.to St.Petersburg scholars Eng.voc-ry may roughly be derived into 3 groups:

- formal

- neutral

- informal

The main bulk of the EV is stylistically NEUTRAL W-DS, which have no stylistic colouring and may be used in any type or style of speech, they denote things surrounding us in our everyday life, their qualities and properties (man, land, house)

Neutral w-ds are contrasted to stylistically coloured (formal and informal) w-ds, which are suitable in certain occasions in this or that style. Every stylistically coloured w-d presupposes a choice, that is styl-ly neutral w-d.

Ex. to talk, to speak (N) – to chat (fam.), to wag one’s tongue (familiar)

The stylisic char-cs of a w-d are determined by:

1. it’s stylistic colouring, resulting from its prevelent use in this or that style

2. additional expressive evaluatory and emotional features

3. some w-ds have a very strongly pronounced styl.colouring, others – less, and the majority of w-ds are neutral; but a neutral w-d doesn’t always present its neutrality (neifer – телка для животных). Styl-ly neutral w-ds may acquire styl.colouring in certain context

FORMAL: 1. general bookish (literary).

2. special bookish

W-ds, which have dictinct bookish ch-re, learned colouring are called literary or bookish w-ds. They are subdivided into general or common literary w-ds. General literary w-ds are mostly used in the written type of speech and sometimes in formal official talk (infant, to flin - to run, colamity – disaster, to pass the Rubicon, to avail oneself to the opportunity). When literary w-ds are used in direct, informal, they denote the deliberate wish of the speaker to show his culture and sometimes it produses a comical effect.

Special (narrow) literary w-ds may be grouped into:

• terms

• foreign w-ds or barbarisms

• archaic w-ds

• poetic w-ds

The specific features of terms (scientific style):

1. as a rule they are devoid of any emotional m-ng

2. they are monosemantic

3. they are styl-ly neutral

They can separately or in any scientific text have no scientific value, but transplated to lit-re, they acquire expressive value.

We can distinguish 2 cases in the use of terms:

1. when the use of terms doesn’t contradict the subject matter, when it fits the context. It’s the case with science-fiction novels/professional novels. By using terms the writer creates the realistic background, a true-to-life atmosphere of science/industrial life. Sometimes the term may stand for the title of the novel, reviewing the theme and the subject matter of it (A.Haily “Final Diagnisis”).

2. when the use of terms contradicts the context, the subject matter of the text. In this case the comical effect is created (Steven Leacock).

Barbarisms are more assimilated than foreign w-ds. FW→B→bookish w-d (chic[ſik] – barbarism = fationable; bon mot[bon mou]; serviette). The use of a B or a FW imbues (наполняет) the utterance with a new quality, which stands from the auther’s styl.purpose.

Functions:

1. to create the realistic atmosphere

2. to create the local colour, which may be external and internal. By external local colour we understand portraing the local scene, the local setting, background , the physical details. By internal local colour we understand the psycological, temporamental and moral char-cs of the people’s portrait.

FW and B depict the ch-re either as refind and cultured person, hint at his social state, education, or they may suggest the person’s pretands to be such. They also char-ze one as a representative of an alian nation.

3. Elivation. The unusual, strange for the native ear sounding of the foreign w-ds / barbarisms helps to make the utterance exalted. Geographical names create romantic assosiation.

4. Comical effect. Especially in the so-called macoronic poems. Foreign w-ds, often distorbed, are introduced into the text alongside native w-ds.

Archaic w-ds. Accord. to the stages in the aging process of w-ds we distinguish:

- absolesent w-ds, which are in the stage of gradual passing out, of general use (thou, thee);

- obsolete w-ds – are w-ds, which went out of use, but still are recognized the Speaking-English Community (nay = no)

- archaic proper – no longer recognizable w-ds, drop out of usage (a losal = a lazy fellow)

- historisms – w-ds, which denote events, institutions, which are no longer in use (muscet – мушкет)

Functions:

1. to create realistic background to historical events

2. terminological function

3. satirical purposes (Byron)

4. elevative effect

Poetic w-ds aim at producing and elevating effect, they may also be used for satirical purpose.

INFORMAL W-DS belong to non-literary stratum of voc-ry and the classification here is not strict; there is no stability in this layer as a whole. It comprises w-ds, which are used in a strictly informal intercoarse: slang, jargonisms, vulgarisms... In lit-re they are used mostly for speech char-n, but there is a growing tendency, especially in American lit-re, to write the whole novel employing such w-ds, especially vulgarisms.

3) Every separate m-ng of a w-d is complex and contains several ingredients. The notional content (понятийное знач-е) is expressed by the denoting m-ng, which names a notion or an object. The connotative m-ng presents certain overbones, which are superimposed (наложены) on the main notional semantic content of a w-d. They are optional and render additional shades of m-ng.

Within the conn-ns we distinguish:

1. emotional con-ns of the w-ds, its capacity to evoce or directly express emotion (“daddy” instead of “father”; “kid”...)

2. evaluatory con-ns – the capacity to evoce or directly express evaluation: negative, positive, neutral (главарь – лидер; to sneak – to move silently with some negative purpose)

3. expressive con-ns – the capacity to directly express intencity (to love – to adore – to worship)

4. stylistic con-n – the capacity of a w-d to posess stylistic colouring, that is when the w-d itself is suggestive of this/that style (sumber – sleap)

Sometimes a w-d may be charged with all or several of the above mentioned con-ns (Man can be analised, woman – only adored). Some linguists name 7 con-ns adding to the 4 literary «Анна Каренина»), historical (treugolka), social (thou – for those, who are lower in the social state in old times) con-ns

Sometimes con-ns may be strong, that the dictionary m-ng may be almost forgotten

Snarl w-ds: Japs (about Japanese), Reds (красные), democratic, freedom and so on.

Another classification is b/w inheriant (usual) and adheriant (occasional) con-ns:

- the inheriant con-ns are those, that form a permanent part of the stylistic char-cs of a ling.unit; con-ns, which are always present in a ling.unit (money – pelf (презрительный металл) – daugh (грош))

- the adheriant con-ns are those, which appeal in speech, in texts under the influence of context (foreigner (in the story))

The Main Division of Expressive Means. Lexical Means of Expressiveness.