Ин.яз ЛУР / Экзамен
.docThe MSTU is one of the oldest, and biggest polytechnical U-ns in our country. It was founded in 1830 as a Trade School which trained qualified foremen for industry. In 1868 it was reorganized into a higher school with only two courses. In 1930 the School was named after Nickolay Bauman who had carried on revolutionary propaganda among the students of the School up to 1905. Such famous Russian scientists as Zhukovsky, Tchaplygin, Vavilov were among the founders of the School. The MSTU is proud of its outstanding graduates Korolev, Tupolev, Shukhov, Lebedev, Lavochkin and other world-famous scientists. Some Soviet cosmonauts graduated from the School. They are Feoktistov, Eliseyev, Strekalov, Makarov, Soloviev, Alexandrov, Laveikin, Balandin. In 1989 the Moscow Higher Technical School was renamed into a Technical University which combines the advanced methods of university and engineering education with practical training. It is one of the leading higher schools in our country whose task is to train highly qualified engineers for all areas of national economy. The students of the MSTU can choose between 59 specialities. The MSTU has been awarded three orders: the Order of Lenin, the Order of the October Revolution and the Order of the Red Banner of Labour.
In 1959 BMSTU opened its branch in Kaluga to train engineers for local industrial enterprises. Moscow and Kaluga colleagues discuss methods of teaching, carry out joint research. Moscow professors deliver lectures to Kaluga students, whereas Kaluga students can write their course papers and carry out their independent research work at the departments of the University in Moscow. Kaluga graduates of all specialties receive prestigious diplomas of BMSTU, which is reckoned among 10 world-famous Technical Universities.
The KB has 6 faculties:1 Materials and Technology 2Mechanical, Materials and Manufacturing Engineering 3Electronics, Informatics and Control Systems 4Fundamental Sciences 5Social and Economic Sciences 6Pre-University Training
Presently the students body of the KB numbers more than 3000 students. Highly-skilled and dedicated teaching staff comprises 30 Doctors of Science and 181 Candidates of Science.
A lot of our graduates were involved in expanding the local economy development. They work in different fields of industry in Russia as well as abroad. Among the graduates of the KB are our Regional and Kaluga city leaders. Managers of the largest enterprises and companies, Chief Engineers, Designers. The best graduates of the KB are given an opportunity to continue their study program in 7th year in order to earn qualification of a Research engineer. Those who proved to be gifted for scientific research can the right to take a postgraduate course.
Honours students, combining their learning with scientific research are awarded with scholarships bearing the names of outstanding Russian scientists and public figures, such as Ts-y, Chiz-y, D-va and others.
In February 1996 the KB of BMSTU has started its international scientific and academic activities. Now the students from Kaluga have their traineeships abroad. This form of professional learning aims to provide specialists with the opportunity to increase their knowledge and skills and improve their foreign language competence.
After completing a compulsory 3-year program of learning Eng, Ger and Frn the students of the KB can master the second foreign language if they wish. They have also an opportunity to obtain qualification of a translator in Eng, Ger or Frn.
Undergraduate students of all specialities have an opportunity to possess the second higher education in Economics and Enterprise management. A special training module has been worked out. It covers a number of economic subjects. The second year of this training module leads to the award of the second Diploma.
The Preparatory Systems at the University comprises: Pre-University Department, University Preparatory Courses, Physics and Mathematics School, Information Technology School and Russian Language Course. All departments of the Kaluga Branch have stade-of-the-art laboratories and workshops. The computers are fully-networked throughout the University and have connections to national and international networks.
The University Library is well stocked with approximately 200 000 books. That is why all the students are provided with textbooks on a free of charge basis. The library comprises 2 Reading-halls where temporary topic exhibitions are offered to the public.
My Speciality The Faculty Of Fundamental Sciences was established in 1998. 6 professors, 30 associate professors, 11 senior teachers constitute the regular teaching and research staff.
The faculty includes the following departments: 1The department of computer software, information technologies and applied mathematics; 2The department of industrial ecology; 3The department of higher mathematics; 4The department of physics; 5The department of theoretical mechanics; 6The department of chemistry;
The faculty offers advanced training in two areas: 1Computer software and computer-aided systems 2Environment protection and rational use of natural resources.
My speciality is Computer Software and Computer-Aided Systems. The department was set up in 1990 on the basis of two departments: the department of higher mathematics and computer engineering. The first enrolment of the students was made in 1998.
The training is supposed to be carried out on a two-level basis. The students may take a Bachelor’s degree in the field of Informatics and Computer Engineering after a four year course of study and a Master’s degree in the field of Computer Software and Computer-Aided Systems after they being trained further for a year and 10 months provided they have been awarded a Bachelor's degree.
The aim of the program is to train high quality software engineers specializing in complicated system and application program complexes design. The scientific basis of the speciality is composed of the principles of digital computers operation, programming languages of different levels, operational environment, object-oriented programming tools, data base and knowledge base organization and development. A large part of training process is devoted to basic subjects such as high performance computer systems, microprocessor systems, information support and software for computer-aided systems, multimedia and computer graphics, computer simulation, real-time systems, information management systems, information security and protection.
This enables future specialists to attain greater professional knowledge and assimilate more modern methods of research, advanced production technology, its organization and management.
Norbert Wiener is one of the greatest scientists in the history of science, the father of cybernetics. He was born on November 26, 1894 in Columbia (Missouri, USA). Whereas he could be our compatriot. His father, Leo Wiener, a prominent philosopher, historian, linguist was born in Belostock, a Russian town at that time. He headed the chair of Slavonic languages and literature at Harvard University. Leo Wiener was considered to be a good "home teacher" too. He worked out a new educational system for his first-born. It was based on the study, of mathematics and languages. The pupil proved to be worthy of the system. Seven-year-old Norbert recited Dante in Italian. At the age of 11 he finished secondary school. In 1905 he entered the college and in 1908 he was awarded a Bachelor degree in Arts. By that time he was only 14. He continued his education at Harvard University. When he was 17 he was awarded a Master degree. In 1913 he was granted the highest degree, the Doctor of philosophy, for his scientific research in the field of mathematical logic.
The term "cybernetics" is derived from the Greek word "Kubernetes" meaning "steerman". The term was introdused by Wiener himself to describe the complex of sciences dealing with control and communication processes in the living oryanism and in the machine.
His main scientific work devoted to these processes was published in 1948. This date is considered to be the beginning of the age of cybernetics.
The new science dealing with the problems of control and governing of processes plays a leading part among the sciences nowadays. The main objective of this science is to increase the efficiency of human labour by controlling and governing processes in nature, in technology and in human society.
The United Kingdom of Great Britain is situated on the British Isles.
The British Isles consist of two islands, Great Britain and Ireland and 5.500 Of small Islands. The total area is over 244.100 sq. km.
The British Isles are separated from European continent by the North Sea and the English Channel, the narrowest part of it is called the Strait of Dover and is 33kms across. The Western coast of Great Britain is washed by the Atlantic Ocean and Irish Sea, the eastern – by the North Sea. The islands of Great Britain consist of third main parts: England, Wales, and Scotland. There are no high mountains in the country. In the north the Cheviot Hills separate England from Scotland, the Pennies stretch down North England along its middle. Most of the rivers are very short. The Themes and Severn are the longest among them. Some of the British ports are situated on the rivers for example: London – on the river Themes.
Great Britain is a highly industrialized country. The main industrial centers are London, Birmingham, Manchester, Liverpool, Glasgow and Bristol. Birmingham, Manchester, Liverpool and Sheffield constitute the industrial area, called the “Black Country”. Birmingham is often called the “City of 1500 Trades”. Sheffield is the city of steel. Manchester is the chief cotton manufacturing city. Bristol is a large port and the center of aircraft and food industry. In Scotland and Glasgow is the largest shipbuilding and mining center.
During the 20th century the position of Great Britain among the world has changed beyond recognition. It is no longer the leading imperialist state. Nowadays it is politically and financially dependent on the United States.
Great Britain is a capitalist state. Political system of the country is a constitutional monarchy. According to the constitution the powers of the Queen are limited by Parliament. The organs of the government in the United Kingdom are: the legislature, which consists of the Queen and Parliament; and the executive, which combines: a) the Cabinet b) and government departments under the control of ministers. ]
As a result of long revolutionary process, the Prime Minister is the real head of English government. He is usually the leader of the party having a majority in the House of Commons.The British Parliament consists of two Houses: the House of Lords and the House of Commons. The House of Lords consists of over 1,000 MPs. The Lord Chancellor controls all debates in this House. Historically he sits on a woolsack. The MPs of this House are not elected.There are 630 MPs in the House of Commons. They are elected by secret ballot. The Speaker controls the debates in this House.
The life of English Parliament is fixed at 5 years and divided into Sessions. The main function of Parliament is to make law. The starting point is to draft a bill. When the draft has got Cabinet approval it goes to the House of Commons.
The bill’s progress is very complex and includes the following stages: 1. - readings in the House of Commons. 2. - detailed examination by the committee. 3. - debates in the House of Lords and 4. - the final approval by the Queen.
After that a bill becomes an Act of Parliament.
Voting in both Houses is done by dividing into those in favour of the bill going through one lobby and those against it, going through the opposit lobby. Their names are recorded by clerks. The Lords vote "Content" or "Not Content", the Commons - "Aye" or "No".
The Prime Minister forms his Cabinet without consulting Parlament. The Cabinet is the real instrument of Government. It controls and runs all nation’s affairs.
OS Early computing in the 1940’s and 50’s was a bit like working on a powerful pocket calculator: the operator programmed the machine by providing it with a set of instructions, which were directly executed by the hardware. Programming occurred in machine language, coded as binary or hexadecimal numbers. With the development of technology during the 1960’s, computers became large, faster, and more complex and soon were automated to ease the job of the operator and the first OS was born. In the 1960’s computers became powerful enough to serve multiple users simultaneously. And time-sharing, also known as multiprogramming, was born. MIT, Bell Labs and General Electrics made an OS, called MILTICS. We could not image a current-day computer without OS. Ken Thompson from Bell Labs simplified MULTICS to provide access to a computer for one user leading to an operating system which he dubbed UNICS. Together with Dennis Ritchie they rewrote the OS to Unix in the High–level programming language C.
2 main standardizations are BSD and SysV. BSD stands for Berkley Standard Distribution and is a flavour of Unix that has been devised at the University of Califirnia at Berkley. SysV was designed at AT&T Bell Labs and surpass previous hacks of Unix. One of the most important features of SysV Unix is that it combines BSD, SVR3, SunOS and other Unix versions, taking the best from all words.
Computer system can be dissected in a number of layers. The middle layer is represented by the OS. OS-s required the existence of standards. With the increase of memory size and computing power of computers, modern OS can assume a layered structure. OS dissected in a number of classes and these classes are related to parts of the computer: 1the CPU (process management) 2I / O (file management) 3Memory (memory management). Put all parts together and you have an OS. Process management. The most important single task of an OS is to provide the user with process management. A digital computer consists of a ‘stream’ of simple commands in machine language. These simple Commands will be recognised by the processor and lead to some kind of action: call a procedure, assign values. Even we would like to run multiple processes, we often have only one processor at our disposal. This problem is solved with time slicing. The running time of the processor is sliced into very small parts, in the order of 10-500 ms. During each time slice, a process is chosen by the scheduler and subsequently executed. At the end of the slice, the process is put in the waiting state, and a next process is chosen. Switching from one process to a next one is called a context switch or process switch. The processor continuously switches from running one process to another one. A process is always started by another process using one of various system calls. When process A creates process B, A is called the parent process and B the child. This leads to a process state and a parent process number. Process state and scheduling. Any process can be in one of several states. These states include: 1running – a process is running, it has been selected by the scheduler. Also known as active. 2runnable – a runnable process is able to run, but currently not chosen by the scheduler. Also known as ready or waiting. 3sleeping – a sleeping process is a process waiting for an interrupt, or for another process to return control to this process. A sleeping process will never be chosen by the scheduler. Also known as blocked; The state of a process depends on what the process is doing and where the scheduler chose it to run or not.
Memory management. When many process are loaded, each of these process will taking up a part the computer’s memory. Sometimes may not be enough memory to hold processes, which use that memory. There are 2 important methods for solving this problem: swapping and paging. Swapping. When process A is sleeping and the memory it reserves is needed by another process B, A can be removed from the main memory (swapped out) and written on a pertition of the local disk, called the swap space. Due to the hard disk usage much swapping makes a computer slow. Paging.In MSDos, when a single program is too large to fit in the main memory use overlays. First the first part of a program is loaded and run, this part is mainly the control part. It loads the first overlay from disk into memory and runs it. When finished, the 2-d overlay is loaded and run, and so on. Therefore, mature OS support a system called paging. The available memory of the computer is divided in a number of pages. Various methods exists to optimally implement a page replacement technique.
File management. Data on disks is usually accessed through files. A file is a program or piece of text or data on a disk. Files have names and contents. Files are grouped together with directories. Directories can be seen as a special kind of files. A directory is a node in the directory tree and may contain various files and directories. Subdirectories can be accessed through their absolute path.
I/O management. Character special files and block special files are associated with I/O devices. The keyboard is an example of a character special file: transfer goes one character at a time. Block special files are typically disks or tapes. Interrupt handlers. When the scheduler has finished choosing a process for execution, it ussues a sleep system call, which allows it to go to sleep for the specified amount of time. When this time has finished, the system clock will generate an interrupt. Device drivers. With each I/O device is associated a device driver. In each OS one device driver exists for each connected type of device. The device contain the device-dependent software necessary to control that device. The device drivers provide the interface between the device-independent part of the OS, and the I/O devices.
London was born hundreds of years before our era. On the banks of the Thames was a small settlement named Llyn-din. To this place, in the year 55 before our era Yulins Caesar and his troops came from Rome. Britain was conquered, and for 400 years remained a Roman province. Llyn-din became Londinum. Althouth Londinium was quite an important Roman town, it was Winchester that was the capital of Anglo-Saxon England. In the 5 century the Romans left Britain and other invaders came. During 400 years Londinium lay in ruins. Only in the 9th century the Saxon kings began to rebuild Londinium.
In 1066 William the Conqueror settled in Londinium which now became London - the capital of Norman Britain. For 500 years the Normans were masters of Britain. They brought with them Latin and French civilization, built new palaces, churches and cathedrals in or near London. William the Conqueror built the Tower of London and Westminster Abbey where he was crowned the king of Britain.
In 1666 a great fire hit the city destroying most of buildings. In commemoration of the fire a tall column was erected not far from St. Paul's Cathedral. They were built by the famous architect Sir Christopher Wren. After the fire houses were built of brick and stone, the streets were made much wider, a new London became one of the largest cities of the world.
London is the capital of Great Britain, the city great and ancient, large industrial and cultural centre. London stands on the river Thames. One of the eldest buildings is the Tower. In its long history the Tower has been a palace, a fortress and a prison. William the Conqueror built it. Now it is a museum.
One of the different bridges across the Thames is the Tower Bridge built in 1894.
The City of London is the centre of British business and commerce. It’s also famous for its greatest monument St. Paul’s Cathedral. It was built in 1708.
Westminster is to the west of the City of London. The House of Parliament (or the Palace of Westminster) stands on the bank of the Thames. The national flag over the Victoria Tower indicates that the Parliament is sitting. The Clock Tower of the House of Parliament contains the hour-bell called “Big Ben”.
Buckingham Palace is used now as an official London residence of the Queen. It is also in the part of London known as Westminster.
Piccadilly Circus is the London theatre-land. Piccadilly Circus is the symbol of London wealth.
London has many other famous places such as Westminster Abbey, Trafalgar square and others.