- •Translation
- •1. The translation of proper names
- •1.1. People’s names
- •1.2. Geographical names
- •1.3. The names of companies, newspapers, educational institutions, and public bodies
- •2. The translation of internationalisms and culturally-biased lexis
- •2.1. Internationalisms and their types
- •2.2. The translation of international words
- •2.3. Pseudo-internationalisms and their translation.
- •2.4. Culturally biased lexis and ways of its translation
- •3. The translation of idioms, proverbs, and sayings
- •3.1. Phraseological units and their semantic classification
- •3.2. Rules of translating idioms, proverbs, and sayings
- •2. Translation of idioms by choosing near equivalents
- •3. Translation by choosing genuine idiomatic analogies
- •4. Translating idioms by choosing approximate analogies
- •5. Descriptive translating of idiomatic and set expressions
- •4. The rendering of contextual meanings of the indefinite and definite articles
- •4.1. The translation of the indefinite article
- •4.2. The translation of the definite article
- •5. The translation of nominal phrases
- •6. The translation of verbals and verbal complexes
- •7. Translation transformations
- •7.1. Ways of translating non-equivalent words
- •7.2. Lexical transformations
- •7.3. Grammatical transformations
- •7.4. Stylistic transformations
7.2. Lexical transformations
Foregrounding of contextual meaning leads the translator to use lexical modifications, which include narrowing or broadening of the word’s initial meaning, addition, omission, permutation, transposition, metaphoric transformations etc.
Lexical transformations are aimed at rendering the contextual meaning of the source language word in a way that does not coincide with the dictionary equivalents.
1) Narrowing of meaning, is an important way of choosing a contextual equivalent. A broader semantic meaning in the source language is substituted for a word with a narrower meaning. (досліджувати місцевість – to explore the environment; досліджувати ринок – to investigate the market; досліджувати явище – to research into the phenomenon etc.
2) Broadening, or generalization of the initial meaning, is applied to translate a word with a narrower meaning in the source language using a word with a broader meaning in the target language. For example: to be driven by water – працювати на воді; people don’t like to be stared at – людям не подобається, коли на них дивляться.
3) Addition is thus a lexical transformation which consists in introducing lexical elements which are not represented in the original with the purpose of correct rendering of the meaning of the translated sentence and/or actualization of language norms that exist in the target language, e.g.: racing engine – двигун гоночного автомобіля; chemical ice – лід із хімічними добавками; wet grip – зчеплення шин із вологою поверхнею дороги; to jog – бігти підтюпцем, an editorial – стаття редактора.
4)Omission means dropping a word or words from the source language text while translating it. As in the case with addition, the translator is not allowed to omit any part of the meaning of the original text: This is a foolish remark to make. – Це влучне зауваження.
5) Permutation occurs when the lexical elements involved in translation exchange their places e.g.: income policy – політика прибутків; wage rise – підвищення зарплати.
6) Transposition can be defined as the substitution for another part of speech (terrorizing civilians – залякування цивільного населення).
7) Metaphoric transformations are based on transferring the meaning due to the similarity of notions: Він поверне нам гроші, коли рак свисне. – He will pay the money back when hell freezes over.
7.3. Grammatical transformations
Grammatical transformations include all the ways of translating sentences and syntactic structures which imply changes in their target form and meaning in comparison with the original text/message.
1) Compensation is a way of grammatical transformation based on compensating for the meaning lost in one part of the sentence by explicating it in another part of the sentence:
In some people, however, the red color may evoke aggression. – Однак у деяких людей червоний колір може викликати агресію.
2) Replacement is the change of word order in the target language according to its syntactic norms: Definite proof to that effect is lacking. – Не існує достатніх доказів для цього явища.
3) Segmentation is the process of transforming a simple sentence into a composite sentence in the target language.
4) Integration is used to translate complex and compound sentences in the source language by means of a simple sentence in the target language. It is also applied when two simple sentences are integrated into a single composite sentence.