Тема 1.1.6. Культура середньовічної Англії XI-XV століть.

• Питання (завдання) для опрацювання та самоконтролю

1. Якими були спосіб життя та ставлення до жінки у середньовічній Англії?

2. Які основні заклади освіти існували в XII-XIV cт.?

3. Які напрями філософської та суспільної думки були поширені у середньовічній Англії?

4. Які жанри характерні літературі цієї доби?

5. Практичне завдання. England: a historical tour. Links with the past. (HO – Sharman E. Across Cultures. – Longman, 2004. – P. 36-37).

Зміст навчального матеріалу

Освіта. Від англосаксонських часів осередками освіченості залишалися монастирі, які готували кліриків - чиновників та священників. З ХІ-ХІІ ст. стандарти освіти дещо змінилися у бік підвищення її якості та рівня. В Англії, як і у всій Західній Європі відбувався процес духовного та культурного зростання, накопичення знань, розвитку науки. Поширилася система парафіяльних та кафедральних шкіл, виникли осередки світської освіти. Зберігає свій авторитет Кентерберійська школа, але провідними центрами освіти стали університети - Оксфордський (заснований у 1167 р.) та Кембріджський (1209).

Структурно університети складалися за загальноєвропейським стандартом з трьох факультетів: теологічного (богословського), правничого та медичного. Обов'язковим для всіх студентів було вивчення вільних мистецтв - риторики, логіки, музики, математики та ін. Суспільна та політична вага університетів поступово зростала, проявом чого стало право обирати своїх представників до парламенту.

Філософська та суспільна думка. Бурхливі політичні події в Англії початку XIII ст., пов'язані із виданням Великої хартії, активізували суспільно-політичну думку, викликали появу низки наукових праць та трактатів. Найвизначнішим вченим у галузі політичної думки був єпископ лінкольнський Роберт Гроссетест. У праці "Основи королівської влади та тиранії"" він захищав права підданих короля від сваволі урядовців. Гроссетест вважав, що мешканці країни мають право повстати проти неправедного короля, який порушує звичаї та не виконує належним чином свої обов'язки. Вчений та церковний діяч Джон із Солсбері створив "Полікратік" - працю, присвячену дослідженню взаємостосунків світської та церковної влад.

У XIII ст. в Оксфорді викладав і займався науковою роботою видатний англійський мислитель Роджер Бекон (1214-1294). Його заслугою є цінні досліди в галузі хімії (він самостійно винайшов порох), оптики, обґрунтування традиційного потім для англійської філософської та наукової думки емпіризму - учення про те, що найголовнішими джерелами знань та уявлень про світ є досліди та експерименти.

Основною філософською доктриною доби Середньовіччя була близька до богослів'я схоластика система формально-логічних положень релігійної філософії (від лат. schola - школа). Схоласти намагалися науковим, методичним, філософським шляхом з'ясувати співвідношення між вірою та розумом. Крайні напрями схоластики або відстоювали повну пасивність, злиденність розуму, або навпаки, доходили до обстоювання його великих можливостей у самостійному пізнанні навколишнього світу (раціоналізм}. До духовного та розумового самовдосконалення закликав визначний філософ Ансельм Кентерберійський (1033-1100), який брав активну участь у загальноєвропейських філософських дискусіях. Його творчості властиві елементи раціоналізму та гуманізму.

Наприкінці XIII ст. проти пануючої в схоластиці доктрини Фоми Аквінського (томізму) виступив англійський філософ-францисканець Дуне Скот (1265-1308). Він вважав, що можливості розуму у питаннях віри обмежені, проте вони величезні у справі логічного пізнання навколишнього світу. Іншим критиком томізму став Вільям Оккам, який заперечував наявність у Бога "плану творіння" і наголошував на спонтанності цього процесу, що виключало традиційні уявлення про "божеський задум". У XIV ст. отримали поширення ідеї реформи церкви професора Оксфордського університету Джона Вікліфа.

Мистецтво та архітектура. Найвиразнішим проявом розвитку мистецтв доби англійського Середньовіччя є пам'ятки архітектури, оскільки вони поєднували в собі (в прикрасах та оздобленні) також твори інших жанрів - живопису, скульптури. З ХІ-ХІІ ст. до наших часів дійшли три типи архітектурних споруд - собори, монастирі та замки. Це обумовлено тим, що саме будівлі релігійного та військово-адміністративного призначення створювалися із каменю, на відміну від більшості інших, дерев'яних.

Після Нормандського завоювання в Англії, як і скрізь у Західній Європі поширився романський стиль в архітектурі. Крім суто архітектурних особливостей романіка відбивала певне світобачення та світовідчуття людей тої доби. Романські храми-фортеці - прості і суворі у зовнішньому оздобленні, із міцними стінами та баштами, їх внутрішній простір - тісний із незначним освітленням, розписаний картинами з життя Христа, Богоматері, зображеннями святих. Портал (головний вхід) соборів прикрашався скульптурами та барельєфами, апокаліптичними картинами Страшного суду. Найвідомішими спорудами цього типу є собори в Йорку (з 1070 р.) та Даргемі (з 1093 p.). Вони відзначаються більшими розмірами та сміливістю проекту, ніж аналогічні будівлі на континенті.

Із Нормандським завоюванням в Англії також поширилося будівництво мурованих замків королів та баронів. Вони пройшли еволюцію від донжона (багатоповерхової башти) до цілого комплексу оборонних укріплень, які розташовувались у стратегічно важливих місцевостях на височинах. Внаслідок тривалої боротьби королів з баронами у Центральній та Східній Англії замків збереглося дуже мало (Тауер, Віндзор, Дувр), більшість збереглася в Уельсі (Карнарвон, Гарлех та ін.) та на півночі. Вражаючою інженерно-архітектурною спорудою був Лондонський міст через Темзу (994) - на якому стояли будинки та магазини, і під яким пропливали кораблі.

3 к. XII - XIII ст. в Англії поширюється готичний архітектурний стиль. Його ознакою стало стрільчасте склепіння, яке конструктивно було більш досконале, ніж романське арочне. Це дозволило зменшити навантаження на стіни, споруди стали більш легкими та високими. Внутрішній простір храмів збільшився, став вище, був краще освітлений завдяки великим вітражам. Дах храмових башт став гострим (шпиль), стіни зміцнювали стрільчасті зовнішні контрфорси. Портали, як і раніше, прикрашалися скульптурами та барельєфами. Найвідомішими спорудами готичного стилю є собори у Лічфілді (з 1170), Пітерборо, Кентербері, Екзетері, церкви та школи Оксфорду, які вже мають ознаки "прикрашеної готики" - більш пишного оздоблення.

Зразком образотворчого мистецтва є книжкові мініатюри, зокрема у «Псалтирі королеви Марії» (XIV ст.), який містить більше 600 малюнків на різні релігійні, біблійні теми, що демонструють високий рівень майстерності художників.

Тема 1.1.7. Британія у 17 ст. Династія Стюардів. Громадянська війна. Страта короля. Республіка Співдружності. Період Реставрації. Консервативна партія (Торі) і Ліберальна партія (Віги). Славетна революція.

• Питання (завдання) для опрацювання та самоконтролю

1. Опишіть становлення династії Стюардів.

2. Охарактеризуйте причини та наслідки Громадянської війни, страти короля.

3.Розкажіть про Республіку Співдружності, Період Реставрації.

4. Опишіть становлення Консервативної партії (Торі) і Ліберальної партії (Віги).

5. Охарактеризуйте Славетну революцію у країні.

6. Практичне завдання. Опрацюйте тематичний матеріал. Виконайте практичну роботу № 2. The 17^th century HO

James the First

Elizabeth I died on March 24, 1603, in the forty-fifth year of her reign. Two days before she named the heir of the English throne — James VI of Scotland, the great-great-grandson of Henry VII and the son of Mary Stuart. So, James succeeded Elizabeth I and became James I of England without any opposition. The Stuart dynasty was established.

James was the first King of the British Isles. It was not the United Kingdom, because only England and Wales had common Parliament, while Scotland and Ireland preserved their own Parliaments and remained quite independent. Under James I the country got the name Great Britain and preserved it till nowadays.

There were a number of plots aimed at dethroning the King or killing him. The most famous was the plot of Roman Catholics in 1605 called the Gunpowder Plot. The group of Catholics led by Catesby and Guy Fawkes wanted to blow up the King and Parliament on the opening day of the session — November 5. The plot was discovered on the eve of the session and hundreds of people were seized.

Charles the First

After James I-st death in 1625, his son became Charles I. Charles was known as a great supporter of the war with Spain and, like his father, he believed he divine right of the King. His marriage to French Princess Henrietta Maria allied him to Catholic Church of Europe, which expected support and assistance.

To continue war policy and help Catholic Church Charles needed money from the Parliament. The Commons refused to give the money. Charles ordered the dissolution of Parliament. Parliament was now in opposition to the Crown. Charles ruled without Parliament for eleven years, from 1629 to 1640. During this period he persecuted Puritans in England and strengthened English Church in Scotland. Finally the Scots rebelled and occupied northern part of England. Charles needed money to suppress the rebels so he summoned the Parliament in 1640 to vote the money. As soon as members of Parliament gathered they began to discuss the grievances instead of money, so the King dissolved the Parliament. As the Parliament lasted for a very little while, it was called Short Parliament. Unable to fight with the Scots Charles summoned another Parliament on November 3, 1640. This Long Parliament (to the contrast with the previous one) was in session for 13 years; it was restored for a short tune in 1659 and finally voted its own dissolution in 1660.

Struggle between King and Parliament

The Long Parliament in 1640 first took the necessary measures to put an end to the King's tyranny. King decided to arrest the most active leaders of the House of Commons. When he arrived to the House with his men, the leaders had already escaped. King's intrusion into the Parliament caused tremendous protest. The open struggle between the King and Parliament started.

Unlike many previous struggles it was not only the struggle between Parliament and King, but also the people's revolt against King's tyranny. In the revolt English people were divided in opinion — the King was sup­porter by most of the nobles, Catholics and the gentry. They were called "Cavaliers" (from the Spanish "cabal-lero" — soldier). They were luxuriously dressed, good swordsmen and horsemen. On the side of the Parliament were the Commons, the Puritans, trading classes and yeomen, they were called "Roundheads" be­cause of their short hair.. This division was also of territorial character — north and west supported Charles while London, industrial areas and southeastern countries were on the side of the Parliament.

At first Charles I tried to carry on negotiations with the Parliament, but in August 1642 he declared war on it. At the beginning the well-trained Cavaliers beat the Roundheads but the situation changed when the Roundheads were joined by the detachments of peasants and workmen trained by Oliver Cromwell. Cromwell's armoured horsemen were called "Ironsides" because of their strict discipline and organisation. They were convinced of the justice of their cause and fought with full determination. By 1645, the Roundheads developed into the New Model Army formed according to Cromwell's ideas.

Civil Wars. Execution of the King

The first war between the Royalists and Roundheads began in 1642 and lasted till 1646. It was lost by King's forces so the Queen and Prince Charles had to escape to France. The King escaped to Scotland, but the Scots gave him to the English Parliament. The war was announced over after King's arrest in 1646.

The main forces in the Long Parliament were Presbyterians — the right wing of Puritans. They wanted to establish in England Presbyterian Church where all congregations were headed by presbyters — elected church elders. Presbyterians were opposed by Independents — Cromwell's supporters, who were determined to crash the King.

In 1647, Charles escaped from arrest and signed an agreement with the Scots. According to this agreement the Scots promised to invade England and restore Charles, while Charles promised to establish in England Pres-byterianism and to suppress other sects.

English and Scottish Presbyterians allied with the Royalists against the New Model Army and the war broke again in 1648. Charles I was announced to be responsible for the renewal of the war and demanded to be brought to trial. Cromwell's army beat the allies and Cromwell became the most powerful person in England. Charles I was brought to London and accused of tyranny and making war upon his subjects. After the seven days trial King was condemned to death and beheaded before a huge crowd of people on 30, January 1649.

In February 1649, the House of Lords was abolished and England was proclaimed a Commonwealth or Republic.

Republic of Commonwealth

The Independents after King Charles' execution took the government into their hands, abolished the office of King and the House of Lords. They constituted a Commonwealth with Council of State of forty-one members. This new government included people of different beliefs and opinions — Catholics, Anglicans and Presbyterians. The majority recognised Oliver Cromwell as their leader.

The Scots, shocked by the King's execution, in 1650 invited the King's son Charles to fight against Cromwell's army but Cromwell's army defeated Scottish forces. Young Charles had to escape to France. Scotland was brought under English republican rule. The same year English forces conquered Ireland, beginning the policy of colonisation. In due course this policy showed some positive results — Scot­land and Ireland each were granted thirty seats in the British Parliament and free trade with Britain was established. Cromwell's administration needed legitimate power that was got in 1653. A military dictatorship was established. Cromwell was proclaimed Lord-Protector for life. England was divided into twelve districts, each under the control of a Major-General loyal to Cromwell. Cromwell established military regime in the country — he used the army to maintain law and strict order. People were forbidden to celebrate Christmas and Easter or to play games on Sunday.

In 1658, Cromwell died, having nominated his son Richard Cromwell as a successor. Richard didn”t rule long. A new Parliament was summoned where royalists gained majority. The House of Lords was restored. The House of Commons recognised that government ought to be ruled "by King, Lords and Commons". Charles was invited to return to his kingdom. In May 1660, British monarchy was restored — Charles II Stuart became the King of England.

The Restoration Period

Charles II began his reign with the promise to pardon the participants of the revolution, but very soon forgot them. The Parliament he sum­moned mostly consisted of old and new Royalists. This Parliament helped Charles to restore the lands of the Crown and the Church. Puritans were persecuted; Cromwell's body was taken from Westminster Abbey and hung as a traitor's.

The period of Charles II”s reign was connected with three wars with the Dutch colonies. The wars as well as Charles' constant need of money caused the tension between the King and Parliament. But this was only the beginning of trouble. Soon after the start of the second Dutch War, in 1666 the Great Plague — the Black Death came to England. It swept bigger and smaller cities, London was affected most of all. People tried to leave the capital, where houses were full of swollen dead bodies. More than 70,000 Londoners died.

When the plague was almost over, the Great Fire of London began in a baker's house. The flames burned in the centre of London for 4 days and 5 nights. It ruined tens of thousands of buildings but finally stopped the Great Plague.

The Conservative party (the Tories) and the Liberal party (the Whigs)

These severe troubles undermined Charles' power, but the worst effect was made by the King's policy of religious toleration for the Catholics. Charles secretly agreed to restore Catholicism in England if the French King Louis XIV gave him enough money to dissolve the Parliament. This secret agreement was discovered by the Members of Parliament, who in 1679 formed an opposition party. This party opposed Catholicism and fought for the limitation of the Crown power and extending the power of Parliament. This party was called "the Whigs" (a rude Scottish word meaning Presbyterian rebels).

The remaining part of the Parliament united into the other party, which favoured the royal power and the Anglican Church. Later it got the name "Tory" (an Irish word, meaning a Roman Catholic outlaw). The Tories formed the court party, representing the interests of the wealthiest layers of the society. The Whigs as the country party represented the interests of the gentry, merchants and the London City financiers.

These parties developed as real political force in the 19^th century and got the names the Conservative party (the Tories) and the Liberal party (the Whigs). In the 17^th century, these parties were close to the events of the civil wars — the Tory party was mainly Cavalier, believing that the government should be appointed by the King, the Whigs were Protestants (Puritans) believing that King's power should be controlled by the House of Commons. In 1679, Parliament passed Habeas Corpus Act, which aimed against despotic power of the King. Habeas Corpus means in Latin "You may have the body", this act stated the necessity of a trial to every arrested person. No one could be executed without a trial. This Act contributed greatly to the defending of the interests of an individual.

Glorious Revolution

After the death of Charles II in 1685, the crown was succeeded by his brother James. James, who wanted to restore the positions of Catholics in England, continued the policy of friendship with France. The birth of James II”s son made many people afraid that the next King would also support Catholics and threaten the Established Church. The Whigs, the Church and many Tories issued a joint invitation to the Protestant ruler of Holland William of Orange and his wife Mary to restore English liberties and take the English Crown. Mary was the daughter of James II and William was his nephew. His claim for English throne was a reasonable one if connected with Mary's.

In November 1688, William of Orange with his army landed in Devon­shire and marched towards London. English towns, one by one, declared for the Prince. James II vanished from England with his son and on the day of his departure the Lords came to see the Prince. They resolved that the throne was vacant because the conduct of James II was inconsistent with Protestant England. In January 1689, Prince and Princess of Orange were proclaimed King and Queen. Protestant religion was established.

In 1689, the King signed the Вill of Rights, which established the basic principles of the English Constitution: - taxes to be levied by the Parliament only;

- the questions of prime importance to be decided by the Parliament, not by the King;

- the liberty of speech in Parliament. By Parliamentary Act of 1689 Protestants were relieved from oppres­sion, while Catholics were barred to occupy government posts or teach at Universities. All these events got the name of "Glorious" (or bloodless) Revolu­tion — the Stuart dynasty remained in power though this power was greatly limited by the Parliament.

William III

The reign of William III was marked by continuous struggle with France and Ireland. In 1690, an English and Dutch army led by William met an Irish and French army led by former English King James. The reason for fighting was the wish of the Irish Catholics to restore James. The battle ended with the victory of William that was of great importance for the English Revolution but of great sorrow for Ireland. Irish Parliament was reduced and Irish Catholics lost every human right, including the right to education.

William III's foreign policy aimed at preventing French aggression led to the Nine Years War between France and Grand Alliance (1690—1697) of England, Holland, Austria, Spain and Savoy. The end of the war was inconclusive, though some important changes occurred — the Bank of England was founded to finance the struggle by loans and the Cabinet Government system was started.

King William III died in 1702, eight years after the death of his wife, Queen Mary. In English history he is known as a fighter against French aggression, whose foreign policy promoted peace in Europe for a decade after his death.

William III was succeeded by Anne, the second daughter of James II. She was a weak-minded woman, entirely guided by her friend Lady Marlborough. She was a submissive and obedient monarch under whom the main features of Constitutional monarchy were shaped in England. As Anne died childless, she was succeeded by George of Hanover. So the Stuart dynasty was replaced by the Hanoverians.

Science and Culture in the 17^th Century

The 17^th century was rich in political changes and cultural development. It was a century of John Locke, who contributed to economics, philosophy, and politics. The growth of natural science reflected in the founding of the Royal Society (1660) that united scientists from different fields.

Royal Society united such scientists as Isaac Newton, who made great discoveries in Mathematics, Physics and Optics, William Petty, a well-known physician and many others. This scientific movement gave way to different changes in technology, which improved the life of English people and fastened industrial development.

English art and architecture were dominated by classicism, which be­came a symbol of wealth and influence.

After the Great Fire of London Christopher Wren became the author of rebuilt stone houses. Most well-known is St Paul's Cathedral, which is considered to be the finest Protestant Cathedral in the world.

English literature of the period is represented by John Milton, a brilliant poet and John Bunyan, the author of allegories of contempo­rary life.

The period of revolution was connected with severe Puritan restrictions, which affected cultural life — theatres were closed, different entertainments were banned. After the Restoration theatre reflected social events as it had never done before. Drama, opera and ballet experienced the influence of France and Italy.