Languages

A language is a system of communication used within a particular social group. Inevitably, the emotions created by group loyalty get in the way of objective judgements, we are often merely making a statement about our prejudices. It is highly instructive to examine these occasionally. I myself have very strong prejudices about what I call Americanisms.

I see red whenever I read a certain popular woman columnist* in a certain popular daily paper. I wait with a kind of fascinated horror for her to use the locution "I guess", as in "I guess he really loves you after all" or "I guess you'd better get yourself a new boyfriend". I see in this form the essence of Americanism, a threat to the British Way of Life. But this is obviously nonsense, and I know it. I know, that "I guess" is at least as old as Chauser, pure British English, something sent over in the "Mayflower".

But, like most of us, I do not really like submitting to reason; I much prefer blind prejudice. And so I stoutly condemn "I guess" is an American importation and its use by a British writer as a betrayal of the traditions of my national group.

Such condemnation can seem virtuous, because patriotism - which means loyalty to the national group - is a noble word. While virtue burns in the mind, adrenaline courses round the body and makes us feel good. Reason never has this exhilarating chemical effect. And so patriotic euphoria justifies our contempt of foreign languages and makes us unwilling to learn them properly.

Chinese is still regarded in the West as a huge joke - despite what T.S. Eliot calls its "greatly intellectual dignity" - and radio comedians can even raise a snigger by speaking mock-Chinese. Russian is, of course, nothing more than a deep vodka-rich rumble bristling with "vich" and "ski".

As for German - that is an ugly language, aggressively guttural. We rarely admit that it seems ugly because of the painful wars, that it is all a matter of association.

Sometimes our automatic sneers at foreign languages are mitigated by pleasant memories - warm holidays abroad, trips to the opera. Italian can then seem beautiful, full of blue skies, "vino", sexy tenors. Trippers to Paris, on the other hand, furtively visiting the "Folies Bergere", project their own guilt on to the French language and see it as a "naughty", even "immoral".

We are normally quick to observe regional variations in the use of the national language, but we feel less strongly about these than we do about class divisions in speech. If we speak with a Lancashire accent*, we will often be good-humoured and only slightly derisive when we hear the accent of Wolverhampton or Tyneside. Sometomes we will even express a strong admiration of alien forms of English - the speech of the Scottish Highlands, for instance, or Canadian, as opposed to American. But we feel very differently about English speech when it seems to be a badge or banner of class.

The dialect known variously as the Queen's English or BBC English or Standard English was, originally, a pure regional form - so-called East Midland English, with no claim to any special intristic merit. But it was spoken in an area that was, and still is, socially and economically pre-eminent - the area which contains London, Oxford and Cambridge. Thus

it gained a special glamour as the language of the Court and the language of learning. It has ever since - often falsely - been associated with wealth, position, and education - the supra-regional dialect of the masters, while the regional dialects remain the property of the men. In certain industrial areas it can still excite resentment, despite the fact that it is no longer necessarily goes along with power and privilege.

by Anthony Burgess.

Note:

• Сolumnist - журналист, постоянно ведущий определенную колонку/раздел

• An "accent" is a set of sounds peculiar to a region, as opposed to a "dialect", which covers, in addition to peculiarities of a sound, peculiarities of grammar and vocabulary.

Vocabulary

particular - тот или иной, конкретный

inevitably - неизбежно

create - создавать

loyalty - преданность

judgement - суждение

merely - просто

statement - утверждение

prejudice - предубеждение

examine - рассматривать

occasionally - время от времени

fascinate - очаровывать, пленять

horror - ужас

locution - оборот речи, идиома

essence - суть

threat - угроза

obviously - очевидно

nonsense - чепуха

pure - чистый

submit (to) - здесь: передавать на рассмотрение

prefer - предпочитать

blind - слепой

stoutly - здесь: стойко

condemn - судить

betrayal - предательство

condemnation - осуждение

virtuous - добродетельный

noble - благородный

virtue - сила, эффективность, достоинство

course - здесь: курсировать

reason - причина, повод

exhilarating - оживляющий

justify - оправдывать

contempt - презрение, пренебрежение

unwilling - нежелающий

properly - как следует, должным образом

regard - рассматривать

huge - огромный

despite - несмотря на

dignity - достоинство

raise* - вызвать

snigger - хихиканье

mock - здесь: поддельный, имитирующий

rumble - грохочущий, громыхающий

bristling (with) - изобилующий (чем-то)

ugly - безобразный

guttural - гортанный

rarely - редко

admit - допускать, признавать

painful - болезненный

matter - вопрос

sneer - насмешка, высмеивание

mitigate - смягчать, ослаблять, уменьшать

furtively - украдкой, скрытно

guilt - вина

naughty - здесь: шаловливый

division - (под)разделение

slightly - слегка

derisive - ироничный

alien - иностранный

as opposed to - в противовес (чему-то)

badge - значок

banner - знамя

variously - по-разному

claim - утверждение

intristic - внутренний, присущий

merit - достоинство

pre-eminent - выдающийся

contain - включать

glamour - обаяние, очарование

falsely - ошибочно

supra - сверх, свыше

remain - оставаться

property - собственность, достояние

excite - здесь: вызывать

resentment - негодование, чувство обиды

go* along - продолжать, идти вперед

Word Study.

Ex. 1. Match the phrases with their Russian equivalents:

1. daily paper a/ огромная шутка

2. exhilirating effect b/ благородное слово

3. contempt of foreign languages c/ имитация китайского

4. noble word d/ изобилующий чем-то

5. way of life e/ оживляющий эффект

6. huge joke f/ так называемый

7. mock-Chinese g/ способ жизни

8. bristling (with) h/ слепое предубеждение

9. their own guilt i/ внутреннее достоинство

10. blind prejudice j/ ежедневная газета

11. so-called k/ пренебрежение ин. языками

12. intristic merit l/ их собственная вина

Ex 2. Match the phrases with their Russian equivalents:

1. to make a judgement a/ изучать с неохотой

2. to stoutly condemn b/ редко признавать

3. to betray traditions c/ вынести суждение

4. as opposed to d/ ассоциировать с богатством

5. to learn unwillingly e/ вызывать негодование

6. to learn properly f/ решительно осуждать

7. to rarely admit g/ предавать традиции

8. to associate with wealth h/ изучать должным образом

9. to excite resentment i/ в противовес чему-то

Ex. 3. Translate the following sentences into English.

1. Язык - это система общения, применяемая внутри той или иной социальной группы.

2. Мы неизбежно выносим суждения о каждом конкретном языке.

3. Наше пренебрежение к иностранным языкам вызывает в нас нежелание изучать их должным образом.

4. Китайский язык до сих пор рассматривался на Западе как огромная шутка.

5. Комики, выступающие на радио, часто используют в качестве шуток имитацию китайского языка.

6. Русский - язык грохочущий, с преобладанием окончаний (endings) "-вич" и “-ский".

7. Немецкий - агрессивно гортанный язык; мы редко признаем, что такое наше отношение к нему вызвано болезненными воспоминаниями о войне.

8. Итальянский считается музыкальным языком, языком теноров.

9. А французский зачастую считают языком"шаловливым", а то и "аморальным".

10. Мы четко различаем (clearly distinguish) региональные вариации в

использовании национального языка.

11. Диалект, известный под названием Королевского английского исходно (originally) был чисто региональной формой - и тогда люди не считали, что ему присущи внутренние достоинства.

12. Но на нем говорили в районе, выддающемся с социально-экономической точки зрения - это район, включающий в свой сотав Лондон, Оксфорд и Кембридж.

13. Позже он обрел (gain) свое очарование и стал считаться изыком, который

следует изучать.

14. С той поры его ассоциируют - порою ошибочно - с наличием состояния, высокого положения в обществе и хорошего образования.

Comprehension Check.

Answer the following questions:

1. What is a language?

2. Do the English learn foreign languages willingly?

3. Is the writer amused by his own prejudices about languages?

4. Is it bad to use American Expressions in British English?

5. Does the author consider "the British Way of Life" to be suoerior to other

cultures?

6. How does the author describe foreign languages?

7. What is meant by "Queen's English"?

8. What is it associated with?

Topics to Discuss.

1. English as opposed to foreign languages.

2. The Queen's English.

3. British English and American English.

Text II-B

THE POWER OF THE SPOKEN WORD

Arguments and debates can be exhilarating experiences.

But those wishing to be more persuasive must first make sure they prepare.

If you say "I am having an argument", most people will assume that you are picking a fight. But this need not necessarily be so. The ability to argue in a controlled way is a fundamental skill. It is used by lawyers, politicians, campaigners and many others every day of the week. Arguing well is part of the process of successful negotiation. It is far more likely to get you out of trouble than into it. Some people instinctively find that they are strong arguers. However, the art of arguing can be taught, and in many schools it is part of other subjects. Until the beginning of this century, many people considered arguing to be one of the essential elements in a proper education

The Greeks and Romans, whose ideas about law, science, the arts and society have had such an enormous impact on our own culture, also influenced the way we argue. Aristotle (384-322 BC), the Greek philosopher, wrote a work called Rhetorica which laid down rules to follow in order to argue successfully. In these ancient societies, writing was used less widely than in ours and so public speaking was very important. There were no newspapers and no television to help people decide what they thought about issues. Practised speakers, known as orators, who spoke on formal occasions and at public meetings, were critical in helping to form opinions. Orators used all the tricks of rhetoric to get their points across. In Shakespeare's play Julius Caesar, Mark Antony is so angry about the assassination of Caesar, his friend, that he makes a powerful speech to the Roman people.

Shakespeare, who knew from his reading about the Roman art of public speaking, gives his character powerful lines which win the people over to his side. Speaking like a true Roman orator, Antony addresses his audience with the lines, "Friends, Romans, countrymen, lend me your ears ..."

If Anthony were transported in time and space to the Houses of Parliament in Britain today, lie would almost certainly recognise what was going on. He would realise that when politicians "debate" bills or motions, they are following on Horn the lines that were laid down in the ancient world. Whether he would be impressed by what he heard is, of course, another matter.

To win an argument, you need to convince someone that you are right. To do tliat you have to make a good case, which requires organisation. Many people have suggested ways to do this. The same basic principles underlie most systems.

Firstly, you should decide what you think. It is surprising how many people start sounding off about something without really deciding what they think about it. An opinion which has been formed without any real thought or inherited from others - friends or parents, for example - is really no more than a prejudice. Before you are able to argue on any subject, you need to understand what you are talking about.

Next, you should select your arguments. The whole process of talking about your opinion and showing why it is right is known as an argument. The individual parts of the process are also called arguments. Selecting your arguments means coming up with the reasons which best support your opinion. It often helps to think of specific examples to help illustrate them. You might want to argue that nuclear power should be banned. One of your arguments might be that it is dangerous. You might want to illustrate this by giving examples of accidents that have actually happened.

You should also anticipate your opponent's arguments because, as well as coming up with reasons in support of your opinion, you need to think about the criticisms that might be made of it. You need answers for these criticisms. This is one of the most powerful ways of winning over your audience.

The order of your arguments is also very important. You might want to deal with the powerful and convincing arguments first. On the other hand, you might like to start with the less important ones and build up a more and more convincing case. Of course, there is more to winning an argument than just having a good case. You also need to present it properly. That means not just thinking about what you say, but also about how you say it. Over the years, people have thought up a number of techniques to make what they say persuasive. These include asking rhetorical questions (which are not meant to be answered), appealing to the audience's emotions and making effective analogies.

Vocabulary.

argument - спор, дискуссия; аргумент, доказательство

debate - дебаты, дискуссия, полемика, спор

argue - спорить, доказывать, убеждать

exhilirate - оживлять, веселить

persuasive - убедительный

make sure - убедиться

assume - полагать, считать

fight - борьба

ability - способность

skin - кожа

lawyer - адвокат, юрист

negotiation - переговоры

get out of the trouble - избежать проблемы

essential - существенный

proper - подходящий, соответствующий

enormous - огромный

impact - воздействие, влияние

influence - влиять

lay down - заложить

ancient - древний

widely - широко

issue - вопрос

occasion - случай

trick - уловка

assasination - убийство

address - обращаться

audience - аудитория

countrymen - соотечественники

lend - здесь: предоставить

recognise - узнать, признать

be going on - происходить

bill - законопроект

impress - впечатлять

convince - убеждать

case - случай

require - требоваться

underlie - ледать в основе

sound off - разносить (новости)

opinion - мнение

inherit (from) - здесь: заимствовать (от)

prejudice - предубеждение

be able - быть способным, мочь

select - выбирать, отбирать

individual - отдельный

reason - причина, повод

support - поддерживать

nuclear - ядерный

ban - запрещать

accident - несчастный случай, авария

actually - на самом деле

anticipate - предвидеть

opponent - противник, оппонент

deal*(with) - иметь дело (с)

convincing - убедительный

on the other hand - с другой стороны

properly - соответственно, должным образом

appeal (to) - обращаться, взывать (к)

Word Study.

Ex. 1. Match the phrases with their Russian equivalents:

1. convincing arguments a/ существенный элемент

2. controlled way b/ официальный случай

3. in support of one's opinion c/ огромное воздействие

4. ability to argue d/ древнее общество

5. successful negotiation e/ контролируемый способ

6. more likely f/ сильный спорщик

7. strong arguer g/ правила, которым следуют

8. essential element h/ соответсвующее образование

9. proper education i/ в поддержку своего мнения

10.enormous impact j/ убедительные доказательства

11. rules to follow k/ более вероятно

12. ancient society l/ во времени и в пространстве

13. Formal occasion m/ умение спорить/доказывать

14. tricks of rhetoric n/ другой вопрос

15. in time and space o/ уловки риторики

16. Another matter p/ успешные переговоры

Ex. 2. Match the phrases with their Russian equivalents:

1. to appeal to the audience a/ победить в споре

2. to form an opinion b/ унаследовать от других

3. to be persuasive c/ обращаться к аудитории

4. to address to opponents d/ произойти на самом деле

5. to win an argument e/ лежать в основе б-ва систем

6. to inherit from others f/ обращаться к оппонентам

7. to underlie most systems g/ завоевать аудиторию

8. to anticipate some critic h/ быть убедительным

9. to happen actually i/ сформировать мнение

10. to win the audience j/ предвидеть критику

Ex. 3. Translate the following sentences into English.

1. Способность (умение) спорить/доказывать контролируемым способом является фундаментальным умением в дебатах.

2. Это умение применяется (apply) юристами, политиками и представителями ряда других профессий.

3. Хороший спор - это часть успешного ведения переговоров.

4. Некоторые люди инстинктивно чувствуют, что они - хорошие спорщики.

5. Однако искусству ведения переговоров можно научить.

6. До начала ХХ-го века многие люди рассматривали умение спорить и вести переговоры существенными элементами хорошего (proper) образования.

7. В древние времена не было ни газет, ни телевидения, а письмо (writing) использовалось в гораздо меньшей степени, чем настоящее время.

8. Чтобы победить в споре, вам нужно убедить других, что вы правы.

9. Удивительно, как много людей начинают говорить (sound off), не решив, что они думают по этому поводу.

10. Мнение, которое либо сформировано без раельного обдумыввания, либо заимствовано от других - не что иное, как предубеждение.

11. Прежде, чем начать спорить по какому-то поводу, вам нужно понять, о чем вы собираетесь говорить.

12. Затем следует отобрать нужные аргументы.

13. Весь процесс высказывания вашего мнения и доказательство того, почему это верно, называется дискуссией.

14. Затем следует отобрать доводы, которые лучше всего могут поддержать ваше мнение.

15. Неплохо также подобрать примеры, чтобы проиллюстрировать ваше доказательства.

16. Вы также должны быть готовы к возможной критике.

17. Порядок приведения примеров тоже очень важен - можно начать с менее

важных и закончить выступление наиболее убедительными.

18. С годами люди создали множество техник, чтобы выглядеть (sound) более

убедительными, в том числе риторические вопросы (вопросы, не требующие

ответа), воззвание к эмоциям аудитории и приведение убедительных

аналогий.

19. Пользуясь вышеуказанными (above) методами, вы сможете завоевать

аудитoрию.

Comprehension Check.

Answer the following questions:

1. What are the meanings of the word "argument"?

2. Who needs the skill of arguing?

3. Is the art of arguing an in-born (прирожденный) quality or it can be taught?

4 What is the book "Rhetoric" by Aristotle devoted to?

5. Why public speaking was so important in ancient times?

6. What is needed to convince someone that you are right?

7. What is needed to be successful in debates?

8. Is the order of presenting arguments important?

9. What is a rhetoric question?

Topics to Discuss.

1. Ways in which public opinion was formed in the past.

2. A book from which we can learn the skills of arguing.

3. Two different methods for presenting the points of the argument.

4. Criticism of speaking without preparation.

Text II-C