Английский язык учебник

The ways parents handle their feelings between them – in addition to their direct dealings with a child – impart powerful lessons to their children who are attuned to the subtlest emotional exchanges in the family. 7. One evening I returned home full of enthusiasm over what my wife had done, and felt very grateful to her. 8. In organic pathology, the theme of a return to the patient through the illness does not preclude the strict adoption of a perspective, whereby conditions and effects, essen tial processes and singular reactions in pathological phe nomena can be isolated. 9. The patient does not view his illness in the same way as the doctor does: he never adopts that speculative distance that would enable him to grasp the illness as an objective process unfolding within him, without his participation. 10. Might people be harmed if they become “internet addicted”? 11. The fact that the apprehended misfortune never took place could not prove that it would not take place in the next few months. 12. People who thought the child was a boy rated the child as significantly more active than people who thought the child was a girl. 13. No psychology, at any rate, can ques tion the existence of personal selves. 14. Physical pres ence is an important dimension of communication and intimacy. 15. In a kaleidoscope revolving at a uniform rate, although figures are always rearranging them selves, there are instants during which the transforma tion seems almost absent, followed by others when it goes with magical swiftness. 16. The phenomena of selective attention and deliberate will are examples of this choos ing activity. 17. Attention, on the other hand, out of all the sensations yielded, picks out certain ones as worthy of notice and ignores all the rest. 18. Finally the effort will be made to ponder over some of the unanswered prob lems which cry for deeper understanding and for more adequate research. 19. In the early stages of a science the importance of the procedure used far outweighs that of the information obtained. 20. Among psychologists and psychiatrists there are many whose concept of the

individual is that of an object to be dissected, diagnosed and manipulated. 21. We are acquainted with some of the conditions underlying memory.

Exercise 4. Translate the following sentences into English using the indicated words from the vocabulary list.

READING

DEFINING AND CLASSIFYING EMOTIONS

Defining Emotions

Try to recall the last time you experienced an emo tion of some significance – perhaps the fear of going to the dentist. You may be able to identify four components to your emotional reaction: (1) You experience a subjec tive feeling, or affect, which you may label fear, (2) You have a cognitive reaction: you recognize or “know”, what happened, (3)You have an internal, physiological reac tion, involving glands, hormones, and internal organs, and (4) You engage in an overt behavioral reaction. You tremble as you approach the dentist’s office.

Note that when we add an overt behavioral compo nent to emotions, we can see how emotions and motiva tion are related. Emotions are motivators. To be moti vated is to be aroused to action. Emotional experiences also arouse behaviors. Theorist Richard Lazarus put it in this way: “Without some version of a motivational principle, emotion makes little sense, inasmuch as what is important or unimportant to us determines what we define as harmful or beneficial, hence emotional.”

There has been considerable debate in psychology concerning how best to define emotion. As one researcher puts it, “Despite the obvious importance of emotion to human existence, scientists concerned with human na ture have not been able to reach a consensus about what emotion is and what place emotion should have in a theory of mind and behavior” (LeDoux). For now, however, we need a working definition, and we’ll say that an emotion is an experience that includes a subjective feeling, a cog nitive interpretation, a physiological reaction, and a be havioral expression. With this definition in mind, we turn to the related issue of how to classify emotions.

Classifying Emotions

In fact, there are several ways to classify emotional responses. Wilhelm Wundt, in that first psychology labo ratory in Leipzig, was concerned with emotional reac tions. He believed that emotions could be described in terms of three intersecting dimensions: pleasantness– unpleasantness, relaxation–tension, and calm–excite ment. Let’s look at a few more recent attempts to clas sify emotions.

Carroll Izard has proposed a classification scheme calling for nine primary emotions. From these, he claims, all others can be constructed. Izard’s nine primary emo tions are fear, anger, shame, contempt, disgust, distress, interest, surprise, and joy. Izard calls these nine emo tions primary because he believes that they cannot be dissected into simpler, more basic emotions and because each is thought to have its own underlying physiologi cal basis. Other emotions are some combination of any two or more of these nine.

Richard Lazarus proposes a theory of emotion that stresses the motivational role of emotionality. He claims that emotion is the result of specific relationships or in teractions between people and their environments. Some relations are perceived as (potentially) harmful to one’s well being and yield negative emotions, such as anger, anxiety, fear, shame, or guilt. These are emotions we are motivated to avoid. Some relations are (potentially) be neficial, give rise to positive emotions, such as joy, pride, gratitude, and love, and are emotions we are motivated to seek or approach.

None of the approaches to classifying emotions listed so far has proven completely satisfactory. Psychologists continue to propose theories to account for the nature of an emotional reaction (for example, Berkowitz, 1990; Ekman, 1993; Mathews and McLeod, 1994)

The only issue on which there appears to be a consen sus is that emotions can be classified as being either posi

tive (for example, happiness) or negative (for example, fear, anger, shame). Unfortunately, there isn’t even com plete agreement on how to distinguish between positive and negative emotions. Fear, for example, seems like a reasonable candidate for a list of negative emotions. Yet it is clear that fear can be useful and can serve to guide one’s behavior in positive and adaptive ways.

So where does it leave us? As sensible as it may sound to try to construct a system of basic, primary emotions, particularly if such a system had a physiological or evo lutionary foundation, such an attempt will prove diffi cult at best. One problem is that there is no total agree ment on just what basic or primary means when we are talking about emotions. “Thus, the question ‘Which are the basic emotions?’ is not only one that probably can not be answered, it is a misdirected question, as though we asked, ‘Which are the basic people?’ and hoped to get a reply that would explain human diversity” (Ortony & Turner, 1990).

If there is one conclusion regarding emotion with which all theorists agree, it’s that part of being emotional is a physiological, visceral response.

Gerow J., Bordens K. Psychology: An Intro duction. Carrolton, USA, 2000, pp. 444–447

COMPREHENSION CHECK

Exercise 1. Say whether these statements are true (T) or false (F), and if they are false, say why.

Exercise 2. Be ready to answer the same questions on emotions that you were asked at the be ginning of the unit.

Exercise 3. Ask your partner

–what the four components of an emotional reaction are

–how emotions could be described according to Wundt

–what classification Carroll Izard proposed

–what Richard Lazarus’s theory of emotion empha sizes

–what ideas concerning emotions all psychologists share

–if distinction between positive and negative emotions is always true.

LANGUAGE FOCUS

Exercise 1. Match English word combinations in the left hand column with the Russian equi valents in the right hand column.

Exercise 2.

A.Match the names of emotions and feelings in the left hand column with their dictio nary definitions in the right hand column.

B.Say a few words about positive and nega tive emotions using words given in A.

Exercise 3.

A.Guess the meaning and give the appropri ate translation of the following English ter minological word combinations.

emotion: abstract ~, aggressive ~, ambivalent ~, innate ~, induced ~, defensive ~, expressed ~, primary ~, acquired ~, specific ~, secondary ~, conditioned ~

feeling: subjective ~, sex ~, religious ~, disagreeable ~, social ~, human ~, guilt ~, we ~, ~ tone, ~ type, ~ of isolation, ~ of uneasiness, ~ of unreality, inferiority ~

emotional: ~ control, ~ disorder, ~ expression, ~ imma turity, ~ instability, ~ state, ~ pattern, ~ response, ~ support, ~ tension, ~ tone

motivation: secondary ~, group ~ , moral ~ , unconscious ~ , primary ~, positive ~, sexual ~, specific ~, uni versal ~, goal directed ~, conscious ~, ~ to avoid failure, ~for success

primary: ~ emotion, ~ data, ~ attention, ~ drive, ~ group,

~motivation, ~ position, ~ quality, ~ reinforcement,

~reward, ~ diagnosis, ~ factor

basic: ~ conflict, ~ anxiety, ~ need, ~ personality, ~ skills, ~ category, ~ mistake, ~ research, ~ rule

reaction: cognitive ~, psychological ~, physiological ~, be havioral ~, defense ~, evoked ~, inherent ~, vegetative ~, vasomotor ~, neurotic ~, neutral ~, total ~, delayed ~

positive: ~ feelings, ~ correlation, ~ fixation, ~ induc tion, ~ conflict, ~ reward, ~ transfer, ~ valence, ~ tro pism, ~ attitude, ~ adaptation

negative: ~ acceleration, ~ adaptation, ~ feedback, ~ fixa tion, ~ afterimage, ~ induction, ~ reinforcement, ~ reward, ~ transfer, ~ attitude, ~ symptom, ~ contact motivational: ~ hierarchy, ~ value, ~ factor, ~ selectivity

B.Convey the meaning of some terms in your own words.

Exercise 4.

A.Fill in the columns with the proper deriva tives of the following words, whenever pos sible.