Турук Management

SUPPLEMENTARY READING

From individual to team member

The classic texts present employees as individuals working in a firm and devote attention to individual human needs. You will be familiar with this approach in the work of Maslow, who describes a hierarchy of human needs and stresses the importance of satisfying the higher needs (see Figure 1).

Herzberg takes a similar approach (see Table 1), dividing the factors which can be identified in the work situation into those which must be there if people are to work at all (hygiene factors) and those which might be likely to provoke a positive response (motivating factors).

Table 1

The Herzberg model

Organisational culture

The human resource approach centres more on people working in groups, looking at the firm as a whole and developing the idea of a ‘culture’ which the firm will evolve and to which employees will respond. The spotlight is less on the individual employed through a job description and tightly defined role and more on efficient working teams through which better performance can be identified and achieved.

Where emphasis is placed on the needs of the individual and on individual records, a wide range of indicators can be identified through which high or low morale can be measured. These include absentee rates, lateness, accident figures, low productivity and many others. This approach is rather like viewing a class of A-level Business Studies students as individuals.

The alternative view of the class is as a set of sub-groups, not always the same groups, working together to achieve learning objectives which the teacher, as manager of the class, determines. These will be in line with overall objectives as represented by the syllabus and the way it is assessed. Translating this to the work situation implies an approach which allows considerable decisionmaking responsibility to be given to teams of workers. In McGregor’s language, it is very much a Theory Y approach since it demands much greater self-motivation and personal responsibility for outcomes (see Table 2).

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From negative to positive

Much of what is traditionally implied in personnel management approaches centres on negative performance measures: the reduction in labour turnover, the avoidance of industrial disputes, the minimising of lateness and absence through such things as timeclocks and flexitime. The philosophy of HRM, in contrast, is that members of teams have a responsibility to each other which is a more compelling motivator than a rather generalised responsibility to the firm.

Again I cannot resist comparison with the management of a class. Students working in subgroups work much more for each other than for the class teacher. Evidence suggests that this leads to more continuous and more positive contributions than a whole class or individual student approach commonly produces.

The broader perspective of employment

If the philosophy of HEM is effectively practised, the view of employment as finding people who will offer individual job skills diminishes. The focus of workforce planning, selection, induction and training is very much broader. Its consequence is both to require and to develop good communication skills and a greater sense of identity with the organisation. HRM implies a movement away from ‘us and them’ towards a cooperative concern for the same objective based on differing but equally valued contributions.

Some might argue that this is true ‘Taylorism’ in the sense that there is a common goal to be achieved which requires a solution-centred approach. It is not based on different sets of objectives which have to be harmonised in a way which is problem centred and designed to limit or prevent conflict.

Mary Parker Follett’s view that conflict is not only inevitable but is desirable takes on a new dimension within the framework of HRM because it is through the creative resolution of positive conflict that high performance can be achieved. The approach does not deny the significance of individual human needs. Rather, it sets their satisfaction in a cooperative culture which is more likely to give scope for satisfying higher needs than any approach based on the individual job.

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Why change now?

No doubt a variety of reasons can be found for the rapid acceptance of an HRM approach, but I want to confine myself to two reasons apparent in the changing environment of business. The first is the rapid pace of change itself. This is both absorbing and creating innovation at a speed which can only be tolerable within a cooperative, creative and flexible working environment. The second reason is linked to this process – the thrust for better and more complete quality assurance within all aspects of organisational behaviour.

Innovation

The environment is an ever-changing one. This tends to produce uncertainty, fear and conflict when what is required is cooperation, flexibility and contribution. Working within a team is more supportive, allows greater involvement in decision making and an increased opportunity for making a contribution.

Such a dynamic environment also needs a stable workforce – one that can move with the changes without changing too much itself, one that can live with a higher level of risk and greater uncertainty about the future.

Quality assurance

History has shown us that the old method of inspecting work and rejecting where necessary is not very effective. It is better to involve workers in the process. Most will work better if they know what the quality objective is and by what criteria completed work is to be assessed. Motivation is futher enhanced if workers participate in making decisions about all aspects of these processes.

Quality is an agreed objective rather than an external standard, but the pressures of the market place make it increasingly important that quality assurance targets are met. The contribution HRM can make to this process is to develop worker involvement in deciding the goals of the organisation and therefore far greater commitment to their achievement.

From theory to practice?

How real are these changes? Can they be seen in the way organisations are run or is this largely the human relations writers talking to each other?

Drucker predicts that new organisations which embody HRM will rapidly appear in the next twenty years with flatter organisation charts and much more responsibility centred around the workers. A large, number of individual studies, particularly of large organisations in the motor industry, provide further evidence of such changes, but it will no doubt be some considerable time before they are commonplace in the business and industrial parks of our town.

David Dyer is Head of the Economics, Geography and Business Education Department at the University of London Institute. He is Director of the Cambridge Business Studies Project, Chief

Examiner for Cambridge Modular and Oxford & Cambridge Modular and Linear courses, and

Chairman of our Business Review editorial team.

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LIFE AT THE TOP

What do top managers actually do? Andtew Karabadse discusses the varied nature of their work and stresses the importance of top managers in ensuring that an organisation functions effectively as a team.

On being asked ‘What do you do?’, Ian Prosser, Chairman and Chief Executive of Bass, didn’t hesitate. He stressed the contribution he makes to the organisation’s growth and development, and provided a strategic outline for the company. Sir Graham Day was asked a similar question about his days at Rover. His answer emphasised the sensitivity and care needed to introduce change effectively and grow an ailing business. Colin Sharman, UK Partner of the global consultants and auditors Peat Marwick, responded with a smile and a question: ‘Where do I begin?’.

So here are three top managers, each displaying a different view as to what their job really involves. Unusual? No – this is absolutely normal.

Prescribed work

Broadly speaking, any manager’s job can be divided into two parts – prescribed and discretionary. The prescribed part refers to the daily structured tasks someone needs to accomplish in order to achieve the basics. The person has little choice but to do what is required (just as a GP’s prescription spells out what sort of drugs the patient needs, the quantity, and over what time period).

The job may need a low or a high level of skill. For example, routine work is likely to involve people completing a set number of tasks, often conducted in a particular way, on a daily basis. Strangely enough, the work of a surgeon, although high level with respect to skills and status, is also ‘prescribed’. Surgeons specialise in particular aspects of surgery and have a set number of units of work to fulfil.

Apply this thinking to the role of sales manager. The manager is probably given a geographical region to cover, and sells a part or whole of the company’s product range. There are likely to be revenue targets to achieve: a certain volume of sales within certain periods of time. And there may equally be cost targets: you are only allowed to spend so much in order to achieve the target sales.

Sales managers may say their ambitious revenue targets are impossible with the limited number of sales people they have. They need more people. The answer is: ‘No. Sell more – but with the people you have got!’ Hence the job of the sales manager is to a large extent prescribed.

Discretionary work

The second type of managerial work is known as discretionary. This means you have the choice of what to do according to what you think is right. Sales managers who stop and think about their position do have choice: ‘OK, the targets are tough. So do I motivate my people to work longer and harder? Or do I get my assistants to manage my people, while I focus on those valued customers who may require personal attention?’. That is a common dilemma for a sales manager to consider. One crucial aspect of discretion is that the manager in question decides. No one else can really say what is best.

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Research clearly shows that in most organisations, greater degrees of discretion accompany more senior roles. The chief executive has the most discretion. It is up to the job holder to provide the necessary leadership and direction. So much depends on what that person feels is the best way forward, bearing in mind the company’s strengths and weaknesses, likely future patterns of consumer behaviour and the impact of competition.

Where choice is so broad, vision is required, meaning the view a person holds about the future. This is as much about beliefs as about facts. Why should Bass, a brewing and pub business, purchase a global hotel network? So much depended on Ian Prosser’s belief that the Bass Group would be stronger if it entered the hotel market. He believed it could achieve synergy by integrating the beer and pub business with the hotel business. And Prosser’s character and leadership style are crucial to making the new-look Bass work.

The top manager’s role

A production manager would need product knowledge and an understanding of the manufacturing processes. For a manufacturing director, however, these skills may be useful but not vital. The crucial thing is overall capacity for the role of director. This involves a number of different elements: an ability to apply specialist skills, such as financial or production skills; being able to think clearly about the issues and challenges facing the business, and how to respond to them; and a style and sensitivity to communicate with people in order to win their trust and confidence as their leader.

Each director / general manager is going to form a view as to how to make the organisation successful. The chairman or chief executive officer holds one view, but you, as a general manager or director, may not agree with the boss. Perhaps the chairman of the company feels that the way forward is to buy another company – as a lever to entering into a new market. The marketing director may disagree, believing the market concerned to be too uncertain and the extra borrowing needed to make the acquisition too risky. The two managers may disagree, but both are rightly exercising the discretion in their role. So what can prevent such disagreements becoming dangerous and divisive?

Working as a team

The importance of a positive team spirit so that senior managers pull together and yet discuss frankly all the key issues is self-evident, but this is not easy to achieve. Why should a group of top general managers and directors get on? They are quite likely to disagree with each other as to the best ways forward. Even if they agree, they may not like each other’s style and personality.

A Cranfield top executive leadership survey in several countries found that about one-third of companies report fundamental splits of vision at top management level. Even more interesting is the fact that more than half of the companies report personality tensions and style differences. To allow such tensions and differences to continue unabated would be destructive. To try and prevent disagreements would be equally counter-productive. The secret is to achieve an openness of conversation while maintaining a positive team spirit.

Hence an additional element of discretion is achieving good teamwork. Where there are several different views on how to make the company successful, an acceptable way forward is likely to emerge from a robust dialogue between the top managers. What does each senior manager consider are the strengths, weaknesses and challenges the company faces? What does each think are the appropriate steps to improve current conditions? If disagreement exists, why is this? (There may be good reasons for differences of view.) A good team is one where the top managers have a sound relationship, where they can bring their disagreements to the surface.

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SUPPLEMENTARY READING

What if the relationships among the top team members are not well developed? What if people feel too inhibited and sensitive to talk to each other? What if people feel that to make critical comments about one’s boss or colleagues could lead to being sacked? What happens if top managers feel that to speak out is inappropriate?

Knowing the nature of the company’s problems is not sufficient. Senior managers may still not speak out. People can have all the necessary insights as to what is wrong and what to do about it, but still end up doing nothing. Bringing certain issues to the surface may be too uncomfortable.

Therefore the final aspect of using the discretion in one’s role effectively is maturity. Are the top managers of the organisation sufficiently mature to talk about sensitive issues? Nobody is born with maturity – it is a quality that people can develop during their life if they so choose. In fact, many people seem to be unduly lacking in this personal quality. Maturity helps individuals cope with situations of ambiguity, disagreement and tension by enabling them to listen, discuss and contribute with others. A piece of sound advice for any senior manager is to leave your ego at home. That way, others find it easier to talk to you.

The activities of top managers

Forming a broad but accurate view about the company now and in the future is important. And speaking your mind and team work are just as crucial. But what do top managers actually do?

The answer is that they do a great deal in little bits: attending meetings, sometimes just to discuss and sometimes to make decisions; listening to what staff have to say; winning the support, trust and confidence of shareholders; meeting with and entertaining key clients; listening to advisers; reading and digesting a large number of reports; holding confidential one-to-one discussions. These activities are often being conducted while other demands are being made on their time, causing interruptions and new priorities which upset existing schedules. For many top managers, these are normal experiences. A single error of judgement in this busy schedule could lead to resignation. Life is demanding, precarious and constantly changing.

Top jobs require managers to address big issues and daily details almost within the same breath. Making sense of such a demanding and diverse world requires a rare combination of energy, maturity and vision. As Sir Graham Day commented about his days at Rover: ‘I abandoned the historical documents I had inherited with the business, and started with a clean sheet of paper. I then tried progressively to engage people in discussion about realistic strategies for the business ...’.

With the problems of Rover, this approach might not have worked. Yet in 1993 Rover was the only car company in Europe which increased its market share. The simple fact is that the strategy worked because Graham Day made it work!

Andrew Kakabadse is Professor of Management Development at the Cranfield School of

Management. He recently completed a major world study of chief executives and top executive teams.

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Руководство по изучению курса

(STUDY-GUIDE)

ENGLISH FOR STUDENTS

OF MANAGEMENT

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РУКОВОДСТВО ПО ИЗУЧЕНИЮ ДИСЦИПЛИНЫ

ÒÅÌÀ 1: MANAGEMENT: AN OVERVIEW

Цель изучения: научить студентов лексическим основам чтения специального текста по теме ‘Management: an Overview’ и актуализировать знания по грамматике при чтении и понимании текста.

Изучив данную тему, студент должен:

Знать Vocabulary items.

Уметь правильно переводить в тексте предложения, где употребляется герундий.

Приобрести навыки беседы по теме ‘Management: an Overview’.

При изучении темы ‘Management: an Overview’ необходимо:

1.читать текст; грамматический справочник;

2.выполнить задания;

3.акцентировать внимание на следующие термины:

−management functions;

−managerial process;

−profit-marking organization;

−non-profit organization.

Для самоcтоятельной оценке знаний по теме ‘Management: an Overview’:

1.выполнить тест;

2.ответить на вопросы по тексту;

3.рассказать на английском как Вы понимаете ‘What is Management?’

ÒÅÌÀ 2: THE CONCEPT OF STRATEGIC MANAGEMENT

Цель изучения: научить студентов лексическим основам чтения специального текста по тематике и актуализировать знания по грамматике при чтении и понимании текста.

Изучив данную тему, студент должен:

Знать Vocabulary items.

Уметь правильно переводить в тексте предложения, где употребляется страдательный залог.

Приобрести навыки беседы по теме ‘The Concept of Strategic Management’.

При изучении темы ‘The Concept of Strategic Management’ необходимо:

1.читать текст; грамматический справочник;

2.выполнить задания;

3.акцентировать внимание на следующие термины:

−strategies;

−an organization’s strategic plan;

−strategy formulation;

−strategy implementation;

−a competitive advantage.

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РУКОВОДСТВО ПО ИЗУЧЕНИЮ ДИСЦИПЛИНЫ

Для самоcтоятельной оценки знаний по теме ‘The Concept of Strategic Management’:

1.выполнить тест;

2.написать по-английски, как вы понимаете ‘The Concept of Strategic Management’.

ÒÅÌÀ 3: MANAGERIAL KNOWLEDGE, SKILLS AND PERFORMANCE

Цель изучения: научить студентов лексическим основам чтения специального текста по теме ‘Managerial Knowledge, Skills and Performance’ и актуализировать знания по грамматике при чтении и понимании текста.

Изучив данную тему, студент должен:

Знать Vocabulary items.

Уметь правильно переводить предложения, в которых употребляется инфинитив. Определять его функции и формы.

Приобрести навыки беседы по теме ‘Managerial Knowledge, Skills and Performance’.

При изучении темы ‘Managerial Knowledge, Skills and Performance’ необходимо:

1.читать текст; грамматический справочник;

2.выполнить задания;

3.акцентировать внимание на следующих понятиях:

−knowledge base;

−technical skills;

−conceptual skills;

−effectiveness;

−efficiency.

Для самостоятельной оценки знаний по теме ‘Managerial Knowledge, Skills and Performance’:

1.Дать развертные ответы на вопросы;

2.Рассказать на английском языке как Вы понимаете ‘Some ways that managers can appropriate knowledge base and the key skills’;

3.Выполнить тест.

ÒÅÌÀ 4: MANAGERIAL JOB TYPES

Цель изучения: научить студентов лексическим основам чтения специального текста по теме ‘Managerial Job Types’ и актуализировать знания по грамматике при чтении и понимании текста.

Изучив данную тему, студент должен:

Знать Vocabulary items.

Уметь находить в тексте предложения, в которых употребляются причастия настоящего времени – Participle I и правильно переводить их.

Приобрести навыки беседы по теме ‘Managerial Job Types’; При изучении темы ‘Managerial Job Types’ необходимо:

1.читать текст; грамматический справочник;

2.выполнить задания.

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РУКОВОДСТВО ПО ИЗУЧЕНИЮ ДИСЦИПЛИНЫ

3.акцентировать внимание на следующие термины:

−first-line managers / supervisors;

−middle managers;

−top managers;

−functional managers;

−general managers;

−project managers.

Для самоcтоятельной оценки знаний по теме ‘Managerial Job Types’:

1.ответить на вопросы;

2.написать ïî-английски как Вы понимаете ‘The variation of managerial jobs on the bases of a vertical dimension and horizontal one’;

3.выполнить тест.

ÒÅÌÀ 5: DEFINING OPERATIONS MANAGEMENT

Цель изучения: научить студентов лексическим основам чтения специального текста по теме ‘Defining Operations Management’, и актуализировать знания по грамматике при чтении и понимании текста.

Изучив данную тему, студент должен:

Знать Vocabulary items.

Уметь находить и правильно переводить сослагательное наклонение.

Приобрести навыки беседы по теме ‘Defining Operations Management’.

При изучении темы ‘Defining Operations Management’ необходимо:

1.читать текст; грамматический справочник;

2.выполнить задания;

3.акцентировать внимание на следующие термины:

−operations management;

−productivity – operations management;

−manufacturing versus service organizations.

Для самоcтоятельной оценки знаний по теме ‘Defining Operations Management’:

1.ответить на вопросы по тексту;

2.написать, как вы понимаете: ‘Îperations Management’;

3.выполнить тест.

ÒÅÌÀ 6: STRATEGIC HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT (HRM)

Цель изучения: научить студентов лексическим основам чтения специального текста по теме ‘Strategic human resource management (HRM)’ и актуализировать знания по грамматике при чтении и понимании текста.

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